limited: Dictionary Information

Limited adj. 1 confined within limits. 2 not great in scope or talents. 3 restricted to a few examples (limited edition). 4 (after a company name) being a limited company.

Limited company n. (also limited liability company) company whose owners are legally responsible only to a specified amount for its debts.

limited: Geographic Locations

limited: Historical Excerpts

Similar considerations have dictated the form of the maps. All are based on a new Encyclic Equal-Area Projection that preserves an uninterrupted, uniform picture of the world as a whole while approximating the true shapes of the major land masses. The map in each unit illustrates some particular development that affected an extensive area and had important implications for world history. But on all nineteen maps the contours of the continents and oceans remain identical in scale, position, and relationship, a device adopted to emphasize the enduring realities of global geography throughout recorded history. It requires courage to undertake a survey of this scope and resolution to complete it. Historical perspectives have deepened and broadened in recent decades and every day brings new discoveries that modify some detail of the expanding picture. In a compilation of this nature, where the subject matter is encyclopedic and the space limited, each evaluation, each item, is the product of a critical ordeal; many are culled but few are chosen. There is, unfortunately, no single court of final appeal. authorities, even the most reputable, may be found to differ in their verdicts and occasionally in their facts. No compiler however scrupulous can hope to escape criticism for debatable judgments and errors of commission or omission. In preparing this Guide Michael Martin has displayed the selective insight and exceptional talent for concision that she revealed in The New Dictionary of American History and An encyclopedia of latin-american History. Her tireless determination to verify, coordinate, and illustrate the material effectively excited my admiration and lightened my task of supervision. The experts whose advice we sought, the co-workers who speeded the research and executed the maps and illustrations, and the members of the publisher’s staff who prepared the typescript for the press all labored to improve the project with unselfish enthusiasm. To participate in a venture distinguished by such gay and harmonious teamwork has been a heart-warming experience. GEOFFREY BRUUN Ithaca, N. Y. April, 1959





EDUCATION Greece Following Homeric Age, emphasis placed on developing ‘whole man and on preparation for citizensliip; formal education ended with military service at age 20; primary education in literature, music, and athletics for most boys; importance placed on development of health, grace, and physical skill; qualification for full citizenship or holding of public office required further study in mathematics, science, literature, political science, and philosophy; no public schools on secondary level; private schools state-regulated and limited to wealthy. SPARTA. Education devoted exclusively to military training; emphasized courage, physical endurance, patriotism, Egypt and Middle East EGYPT, SUMER, ISRAEL. First scliools attached to temples, where priests instructed scribes in art of tvriting; early records largely limited to religious and administrative matters, especially financial; later Sumerian and Hebrew schools taught mathematics and specialized subjects leading to professions of medicine, priesthood, and architecture. Hebrew scribes, 6th century, studied newly codified law of Old Testament; became teachers, judges; in time, overshadowed priests. Asia CHINA. Dedicated to Confucian ideal of ‘gentleman, ’ the man destined for social leadership; trained in moral behavior, social habits and customs, as preservers of social order; education based primarily on study of Five Classics. INDIA. Training of Brahman caste devoted mainly to study of Veda; other subjects studied included phonetics, prosody, etymology, grammar, astronomy; mathematics, literature, use of arms included in curriculum at later date; boys of lower castes learned trades from fathers; laws regulated apprenticeships.





riRST civilized states were relasmall in area, being in fact city which controlled adjacent vilAs most of them developed in river valleys the stream itself proa link whereby the ruler of a city extend his power over his neighireating a league of cities or a;ic empire. Early governments in collective tasks too vast or exe for limited local resources, irrigation projects, the storing of s crops against a time of famine, le erection of the Pyramids and reat Wall of China are examples h imperial undertakings.; limits to which an empire could d and still hold together was deled by the radius of effective cornration. By the 3rd millennium ivention of written records made sible to record laws and dispatch ctions to governors of distant proi. The introduction of the horse 0 Bc) facilitated further expannot only because chariots could eed foot soldiers, but because ited couriers covered longer diss in a shorter time. ps, propelled by oars or sails, orig1 in prehistoric times and played creasing part in trade and commuion. States essentially dependent •laritime power developed more y; the first genuine thalassocracy probably Crete (c2000 bc) Later i’hoenicians, and later still the ks, took to the mediterranean, ilished colonies, and built empires were held together by sea power. almost tideless mediterranean its numerous islands invited namterprise. this map the critical area to ob: is the tiny Greek peninsula, a ed finger pointing southward into.lediterranean. This rocky, mounlus, fragmented land, in which no lity is more than 60 miles from the was the home of the Greeks and led to shape their character. The that liberty loves tire mountains the sea has some historical foundahe ancient empires of the Middle India, and China were primarily 1 empires. Societies rooted in the societies where the masses toil at culture, the bureaucracy is authorian, and defense rests with an army, i to remain static and conservative, h. conditions perpetuate a spirit of :ility, obedience, and orthodoxy: y do not encourage independence, iosity, and skepticism. ^ rising population and the limited ources of their homeland drove the





tliough they limited tlie privileges of citizenship to a relatively small class and left arduous or menial tasks to slaves. Despite their daring and original speculations on politics (and on all other subjects of inquiry) they lacked practical political wisdom. They wasted much of their wealth and energy in local wars, until Philip of Macedon united them forcibly in a Hellenic League (338 bc)





Greece Social Organization. Citizens, divided between oligarchic party (descendants of nobles) and democratic party (peasants, craftsmen, shopkeepers) , exercised political power and were leading class; free but unfranchised group of metics (resident aliens) or, in Sparta, perioikoi (conquered peoples) conducted business affairs of cities; ranked as second class; third class, serf or slave groups, performed menial work, often as household servants, miners, laborers, entertainers; slaves sometimes welltreated, even emancipated, particularly after alexander’s conquest; women s position declined, activities very restricted; intellectual life limited to men. Agriculture. Continued as basic, respected activity; slaves (helots in Sparta) performed work on large estates; meager yield of farms necessitated importation of additional crops; Attica imported 75 percent of its grain, 4th century; Athens exported olive oil and wine; stock raised on small scale. Commerce. Dominated first by Corinth, then Athens; risks great; potentialities never realized; Athens exported manufactured goods, pottery, metalwork, and mining products, principally silver. Banking. Replaced private moneychangers, 4th century; banks accepted deposits, paid interest, issued loans at interest; finance companies established. Economic Problems. Industrial growth limited by retarded technology; Athens’ monopolistic hold on trade and lack of aggressive enterprise largely due to Greek contempt for manual labor; after alexander’s conquests new trade developed with East and with Rome; production, however, failed to expand; gap between rich and poor widened; little benefit derived from some cancellation of debts, redistribution of land, gifts of grain, or sale below cost.





Roman Empire Commerce and Industry. Newly conquered areas increased markets for eastern luxuries and copper, silver,;in, wool, hides, cloth, glassware of Lmpire; prosperity based on uniform;oinage, good roads, improved sea and :aravan travel; industrial production •emained limited, though merchants,.rtisans prospered; collegia (trade asociations) revived; maintained trade ecrets, worked for members’ political idvantage, entertainment, welfare. Agriculture. Remained basis of vealth and occupation of majority; mproved irrigation, fertilization with ime, manure; rotation and specializa,ion of crops; large estates increased; :oloni (tenant farmers) partly realaced slave labor; initially free, later argely reduced to serfdom by debt. Urban Growth. Population of Rome •eached one million; many cities arose IS centers of trade, communications, iefense; Alexandria, rich commercial.enter of Middle East; extensive coranerce flowed through port; Antioch, nd later Byzantium, thrived as trade :enters. Social Conditions. Classes less dis.inct; aristocracy reduced; commerce, :ivil service, patronage enabled low3orn classes to advance to power, even o Senate; decrease in slavery with define of war captives and increased iberation; remaining slaves better.reated; Edict of Caracalla granted dtizenship to all free men of provinces; women enjoyed many legal priv’leges, increased freedom; life sophislicated, cosmopolitan, Roman Law. commentaries and;ompilations continued; Gaius wrote Institutes, model for legal textbooks; aw, Rome’s greatest legacy, perpetuated in legal systems of European :ountries. Social Causes of Decline. Asiatic plague, 3fd century; birth rate, population declined; after 250 government froze kicial status and occupation; nerchants, businessmen, peasants, artms in servitude to state; great wealth 1 hands. of minority; increased unemloyment, serfdom;, lowered revenues; jov^^^nient forced to aid populace. ■jf^hes followed: and irrii¥8~ffie vTg~





Economic Causes of Decline. unfavorable balance of trade; diminishing demand for Empire’s products; increasing burden of taxation to support rising government costs; debt caused devaluation of currency; impoverishment of soil; barter revived; taxes paid in goods. Depression, early 3rd century; small, independent farmers displaced by invading barbarians; land cultivation cut; great confusion resulted from lack of security and stability. Europe GAUL. Enjoyed prosperity as Roman province; agriculture and industry expanded; iron, tin, glass, pottery, textiles exported; Roman social organization prevailed; peasant bound to land as colonus. SPAIN. Settled by Celts; economy similar to Gaul; mining important; new products, such as figs, dates, olives introduced. GERMANIC AREA. West of Rhine, north of Danube, were Alemanni, Goths, Franks, Vandals, Teutons; unconquered; grouped in tribes, determined by family kinship; law based on ancient custom; developed comitatus, group of young warriors who attached themselves to military leader; in return for their loyalty, leader gave them share in plunder, provided arms, upkeep. Society headed by nobility, usually landholders, not limited by birth; small landholders or tenants, second group; liti, bound to land in serfdom (as coloni), lowest class. Bands established settlements along Roman border; moved into Empire as Roman power declined. Visigoths. Moved from eastern border of Roman Empire, through northern Italy; sacked Rome; continued west, settled in fertile lands of southern Gaul, northern Spain. Vandals. Migrated through Spain, forced out by Visigoths, crossed into North Africa; settled on site of Carthage; took to sea, raiding mediterranean shores.





Europe ROME. University of Rome founded during vespasian’s rule; instruction formal, little scientific or creative thought; salaries paid grammarians and rhetoricians; although Augustus had attempted to develop Roman education, many continued to attend Greek institutions of higher learning. CONSTANTINOPLE. University founded by emperor Theodosius; helped make city a center of Greek learning: preserved Greek science, literature, philosophy for ten centuries. HEBREWS. Compulsory elementary education ordered by high priest, Joshua ben Gamala, 64ad, for all males. Christian Schools. Pantaenus, converted Greek stoic, developed an important school of Christian theology at Alexandria; Greek learning used to interpret Scriptures and train leaders for service in Church. Clement. Greek theologian; succeeded Pantaenus as head of catechetical School, Alexandria; teacher of Origen; attempted to reconcile Christian and Greek thought. Donatus. Roman grammarian; author, Ars grammatica; standard text for Latin throughout Middle Ages. Priscian. Grammarian; autlior. The Institutes of Grammar, standard text; taught at Constantinople. Asia CHINA. Confucian classics basis for civil service and prerequisite to political office; examination system developed under Han; theory outlined in confucianist work Ta Hsiieh (The Great Learning); prescribed studies traditional, ritualistic, moralistic; nine years at college; regular examinations; learned enjoyed social prestige; popular education neglected; difficulty of language, examination system, and cost of lengthy education limited number of successful candidates. INDIA. Great universities at Benares; Taxila, Hindu center, leading medical school; Ujjain, astronomy: Ajanta, art; Nalanda, Buddhist center.





Islam In the five centuries from 500 to 1000 the most remarkable historical development was the rapid expansion of a new religion, Islam. Its founder, the Prophet Mohammed, (570-632), fired his followers (Moslems) with an extraordinary zeal, and their military victories added the prestige of success to the new faith and won millions of converts. When Mohammed died in 632 his influence was centered in Mecca and Medina and, although many neighboring tribes had accepted Islam, its influence was still limited to Arabia. Under his successors the Moslems began a century of conquest (632-732) that created a vast Islamic empire stretching from the Indus to Spain. In swift succession they conquered Syria, mesopotamia, Armenia, and Persia and reduced the Byzantine Empire in the Middle East to the Anatolian peninsula. simultaneously, they invaded Egypt, swept westward across the north of Africa, crossed the Strait of Gibraltar, and occupied Spain. When they pushed north of the Pyrenees they were checked by the Frankish leader, Charles Martel (Battle of Tours), and the Pyrenees became a frontier between Moslem Spain and Christian Europe. The magnitude of these Moslem conquests and the losses suffered by the Christians in the 7th century are difficult to conceive. In 600 the Christian realm surrounded the mediterranean, corresponding roughly to the Roman Empire at its greatest extent. By 732 more than half these Christian lands had fallen to the Moslems.





On the peoples of Asia the arrival of the Europeans had little effect at first. The Chinese in the first half of the 1 6th century were more concerned by the raids of Japanese pirates and the restless moves of Mongol peoples beyond the Great Wall than by the ‘foreign barbarians’ who came to trade or plunder. In Japan some local feudal overlords xvelcomed the first Portuguese but were soon alienated by the rapacity of the Christian traders and the dogmatism of the Christian missionaries. In India likexvise the activity of the Portuguese was limited to coastal contacts. The most important political development there during this period was the establishment of the Mogul Empire by Baber (Zahir ud-Din Mohammed) This descendant of Tamerlane conquered Delhi and created an empire for himself in northern India. In addition to Goa the Portuguese secured and fortified Diu (in 1535) Attempts by the Moslems and by the rulers of Gujarat to expel them were completely unsuccessful.





America During the first half of the 16th century tlxe Spaniards expanded their conquests in the New World without serious competition from any other European nation except the Portuguese. Portugal claimed the coast of Brazil, discovered by Pedro Alvarez Cabral (1500) who swung far westward on a voyage around Africa. For twenty years after columbus’ first voyage Spanish conquest and settlement was limited to the islands of the West Indies and the Isthmus of Panama. In 1519 Hernando Cortds led 600 men into Mexico, readied the Aztec capital at tenochtitlan, and xvas xvelcomed by its ruler, Montezuma. The Spaniards seized the Aztec emperor but were driven from the capital (1520) Returning the following year they conquered the city and made themselves masters of the Aztec realm. Ten years later Francisco Pizarro, with a few hundred men, sailed down the xvest coast from Panama to invade the Inca empire. Marching inland to Cajamarca he was visited by the Inca monarch Atahualpa, made him prisoner by a treacherous attack (1532), and subsequently executed him. Reinforced by furtlier recruits Pizarro occupied the Inca capital at Cuzco (1533). The audacious tactics of the Spanish conquistadors brought the two most cultured and populous regions of the New World under tlieir control. No certain estimates are available but together they probably held two or three times the population of Spain (about six million in 1500)





Asia JAPAN. Agrarian feudalism continued; economic expansion limited to amount of wealth islands produced; rrierchant class grew with development of money economy; shdgunate licensed groups of merchants as guilds and granted them certain monopolistic privileges in return for small payments; fees far lower than under regular system of taxation; William Adams, first Englishman to visit Japan, helped build ships there, attempted to foster trade with England; Dutch allowed to trade with Japan, 1611, treaty signed, 1616; all foreigners, except Dutch, excluded; Portuguese expelled by 1637; Dutch gained monopoly of trading, 1640, largely because they made no attempt to make converts; policy of isolation maintained until 1852, CHINA. The position of the government deteriorated, with taxation extremely heavy; creation of large domains for courtiers and princes drove peasants from their farms; English factory established at Canton, 1637. INDIA. Great famine, 1631-32; Portuguese expelled from Bengal, 1632; English factories established: Bengal, 1633; Madras, 1639. Americas Spain controlled three-fourths of total American population, estimated at 13-14 million; development of cities in South America contrasted with towns and villages in North American colonies; tobacco, fishing, textile, iron, shipbuilding industries organized; Shoemakers, Boston (massachusetts Bay Colony) first labor or ganization, 1648; smallpox among Indians of New England, 161, first penal colony in Virginia, 1617, importation of slaves, Jamestown, 1620; beginning of witch trials an executions in massachusetts, 1618; Body of Liberties, code of 100 laws established by General Court of Colony, 1641.





Globol perspectives Spain, Portugal, Holland, England, and France built empires, overseas, tlie Russians crossed the almost empty regions of northern Asia. Between the 15th and the IStli centuries they proved themselves, in terms of territory conquered, the most ambitious empire-builders of all. Between 1462 and 1796 the czarist domains expanded 7 million square miles, a rate of growth that averaged over 20,000 square miles a year. By 1800 the Spanish empire in America included some 5 million square miles, but it was a more remarkable achievement because of the distance and the geographical obstacles overcome. Like the English and French in North America the Russians penetrated an area sparsely populated and without any high culture. Their advance was an occupation ratlier than a conquest. By 1647 they founded a post on the Sea of Okhotsk, but did not realize for nearly a century that it opened onto the Pacific. In 1741 Vitus Bering crossed to Alaska. Russian fur traders followed the coast of North America as far south as California where they set up a post at Fort Ross in 1812. Wherever tlie Russians encountered finn resistance their advance slowed or halted. In Europe they took over two centuries to reach the Baltic Sea and over three to reach the Niemen River. In the south they fought the Turks for three centuries before they arrived at the Dniester and the Caucasus. In tlie Far East tlieir efforts to encroacli on the boundaries of the Chinese Empire met with very limited success. The nations of Western Europe, preoccupied with their own concerns and conflicts, gave little thought to the Russian penetration into Asia and beyond. There were, however, several awe-inspiring facts about the Russian realm and its prospects that merited their serious attention. 1. /Irea. By tlie 18th century the Russian Empire included half of Europe and one-tliird of Asia: in all it comprised one-eighth of the land surface of tlie globe. The nortliern coastal regions that bordered the ice-bound PoLir Sea were treeless tundra. But four-fifths of Russia was covered witli forest or temperate grasslands. 2. Population. With large, areas suitable for culth-ation Russia could support a large population, but its resources had not been intelligehtly ex





Moronobu, outstanding Japanese artist, pioneered in the art of uJciyo-e printmaking, one of the greatest expressions of popular art of the people to be found anywhere/ The elegant age of Louis XIV in France produced the elaborate Baroque architecture and decorations of the Palace of Versailles, the Gobelin tapestries, and the gardens of the Tuileries. The restoration Period in England was reflected in the limited Baroque architecture of Sir christopher Wren. The contrast between the restless, searching introspection of Rembrandt and the cool, intellectual objectivity of Vermeer in Holland was paralleled in Spain by El Greco and Velasquez. The Dutch landscape artists and genre painters, like the Japanese, represented the interests of the middle class.





Russia under Peter the Great (1889-1725) expanded to the Baltic shore (St. Petersburg founded, 1703) and defeated Sweden in the Great Northern War (1700-21). Peter also fought the Turks, who held their own although the Ottoman Empire was in decline. In America the British gained the Hudson Bay region. newfoundland, and Acadia, checking French expansion. The English colonies on the North American mainland had over 1 million white inhabitants by 1750 while the larger French domains there held less than one-tenth as many. In India likevdse British influence expanded although the French began to challenge it. In China Jesuit activities were curbed by Yung Cheng (1723-35): under Chien Lung (1736-98) prosperity increased, population rose, and the arts flourished. russo-chinese frontiers were delimited by the treaties of Nerchinsk (1689) and Kiokta (1727).





Asia JAPAN. Great earthquake and fire at Edo, 1703, followed in next five years by several other disasters, including last eruption of Fujiyama, 1707; reduction in quantity of copper allowed to Dutch for export, 1715; Dutch ships stopping at Japan limited to two a year; economic and social problems increased despite able leadership of Yoshimune, 1716-45; peasants lost ownership of land, farm population declined as movement to cities increased; military class in debt to merchants, laws passed in attempt to alleviate situation; economic problems resulted in easing old rigid class barriers; great famine in western Japan met with positive relief measures, 1732-33; criminal law codified, 1742. INDIA. English East India Company, through gifts and medical service, secured exemption from customs duties and other concessions, 1715; Maratha government exacted taxes from whole of Deccan, 1720; French East India Company established sugar industry in Mauritius and Rdunion, 1735. Central and Eastern Europe GERMANIES. Attempted to abolish compulsory guild system in empire, 1731; Frederick II abolished torture and introduced freedom of press and worship in Prussia, 1740; Cocceji reformed Prussian law; 1745-55; first European.porcelain made at Meissen, 1709; Berlin established first cotton factory, 1744, and first silk factory, 1748. DENMARK. Serfdom abolished on royal estates, 1702. RUSSIA, First budget authorized, 1710. Africa Prussian outposts sold to Dutcli, 1717; last Prussian factories purchased, 1721.





Asia INDIA. French activity became intense by 1750 under Duplcix, until Robert Clive, in British East India company’s service, seized Arcot (capital of tlie Carnatic) in 1751. During Seven Years’ War a revolt in Bengal threatened British influence there; Clive relieved Calcutta (1757) and defeated the Nawab and his Frendi aides (Plassey, 1759). British control had been extended throughout most of the Ganges valley, the east coast, and southern India by cl800. Ceylon was taken from the Dutch (1795) and French and Dutch influence virtually eliminated. Under the successive administration of Clive (1764-67), Warren Hastings (1773-85), and Lord Cornwallis (1786-93) the ascendancy of the British in India became an established fact. Clive and Hastings were attacked in Parliament whidi adopted an India Act to bring the East India Company under stricter control. CHINA. Under emperor Ch’ien Lung (1736-96) foreign ships were limited to Canton despite repeated efforts by the British and others to obtain additional ports. Ships from the United States began to visit Canton in the 1780’s. The power of the Manchu Dynasty remained strong, the empire’s boundaries were expanded, and Chinese civilization reached a new peak of adiievement. Middle East TURKEY lost the Crimea (1787) and the coastal area between the Bug and the Dniester (1792) to Russia. Bonaparte defeated the Moslem (Mameluke) rulers of Eg) pt (1798) and invaded S}Tia. The British under Nelson destroyed the French squadron (Battle of tlie Nile, 1798) and tlie French witlidrew from Egypt (1801).





Central ond Eastern Europe GERMANIES. Frederick II expanded trade with founding of Emden Trading Company, 1751; Codex Maximilianeus. Bavarian Civil Code, established 1756; serfdom abolished, Baden, 1783; Prussian general law code completed, 1788; Joseph II, Austria, abolished serfdom, granted religious toleration and freedom of press. RUSSIA. agricultural prosperity; little real economic improvement despite establishment of factories using serf labor; nobles secured official exemption from service, 1762, while condition of peasantry worsened; 94 per cent of total population serfs, 14 million property of state, 19 million property of nobility; Catherine set up Great Commission to study social reform, but nothing accomplished; actually responsible for spread of serfdom by awards of great tracts of land to favorites; social revolution of cossacks and peasants in southern Russia under Pugachev, 1773-75; suppressed with difficulty. Asia During reign of Ch ien Lung, China prospered; United States entered profitable Canton trade, 1784; in Japan, Dutch continued limited trade at Nagasaki; earthquake, 1751, great eruption of Mt. Asama, 1783, and famine in North came as climax to series of disasters that resulted in rice riots in Edo, 1787; in India, handloom textile industry threatened by English machine-made cloth; French controlled Bay of Bengal trade; Spanish Philippine Company organized, 1785; pen^ colonies established near Sydney, Australia, 1788. Africa Reign of Sidi Mohammed in Morocco, 1757-89, established law and order and abolished Christian slavery, 1777.





In America ftie -Omled States expanded lopldly. atuiexed Texas 0845). obtained the Oiego^^erritQty by treaty with Britain (1846) and the Mexican Cession « Mexico (1846-48). The LaUn American republics remained divided; most oi them wer mUUarv dictalorsmps, but Brazil became an empire (1B22-B1). Al^a remained largely an untoovm continent but the French Algeria (1830) and the BriUsh, who had taken Capetown from the Dutch (1607), broad ened their hold on South Airica. w Almost all the states ol India had come directly or indirectly under BnUsh comrol by 1850. War with China (1841-42) gained Britain Hongkong and opened five other Chinese ports to Western trade. Australia, where the British had established a ment in 1788, attracted colonists who were granted limited seu-govcmmenl (1850). BnUsh sovereignty was procionmed over Hew Zealand in 1840.





Railway built, 1830; better highways and canals aided transportation; institution of ‘penny post system, 1840, extended communications; trade and industry profited by reduction in tariff rates; Britain enjoyed almost onethird of all international trade; abolition of slavery in colonies, 1833; new Poor Law, 1834, limited payment of charity doles to sick and aged, established workhouses for able-bodied paupers; trade unions suffered setback in 1830 s; ‘chartist Movement reached climax in 1848; ihfluence of Owen seen in founding of first of workmen’s cooperative Societies (Pioneers of Rochdale), 1843; repeal of Corn Laws, 1846; Bank Charter Act, 1844, eliminating all notes except those of Bank of England; Public Health Act, 1848, early sanitary measure. FRANCE. Rapid industrial development evidenced in increased consumption of coal; 600 steam engines in 1830, 4853 in 1847; Railway Act, 1842, extended transportation; first law for protection of workmen passed, 1841; revival of radicalism and emergence of ‘utopian’ Socialism seen in work of Fourier, saint-simon, Blanc, and others, 1840-48; severe agricultural and industrial depression, 184647, causing widespread unemployment and suffering; revolution of 1848, attempt to establish national workshops and work relief program, failed; insurance for aged introduced, 1850. Comte, Auguste. Pioneer sociologist; founder of Positivism, which applied science to society and declared reason played large role in social evolution; author of Positive Philosophy, 1830-42; influenced Herbert Spencer. Proudhon, Pierre. Social theorist; condemned abuses of private property; tried to establish national bank for reorganization of credit in interest of workers; failed; influenced syndicalist movement.





Western Europe FRANCE. Manet, Edouard. Brilliant artist; extremely important as pioneer impressionist and plein-air painter; vigorous, dramatic effects gained by an economy of means; not interested in light as such, but achieved recession and depth by subtle use of color intensities rather than by linear perspective; influenced by Courbet, Velasquez, and Japanese prints introduced into Europe; gained only limited recognition during lifetime; best known works. The Guitarist, The Dead Toreador, The Picnic, Olympia, The Railroad, Boating. Daumier, Honore. Great lithographer, highly individual artist; chose Don Quixote and humble people as subjects; The Third Class Carriage, 1860’s. Courbet, Gustave. Objective Realist; important for direct, forceful rendition of nature; extreme individualist; fine portraits; The Meeting, The Woman with the Mirror, Spring Flowers. Corot, Jean Baptiste Camille. 17961875. outstanding figure studies painted late in life; A Young Woman, 1870, searching characterization. Millet, Jean Fransois. Romantic Realist; famed for peasant studies, considered revolutionary as subject matter; stability, movement, sympathy characterized work; The Gleaners, The Angelus, famous works. Daubigny, Charles. Landscape artist; atmospheric scenes of water. Barye, Antoine. distinguished sculptor; famed for wild animal studies. viollet-le-duc, Eugene. Architect, writer; exponent of Gothic revival; internationally known for restorations; wrote several art books which he illustrated. Dore, Gustave. Illustrator; imaginative, dramatic drawings for Divine Comedy, Don Quixote; successful. Carpeaux, Jean Baptiste. 1827-75. Baroque, classic sculptor; The Dance, at Paris Opera. Meryon, Charles. 1821-68.,. Etcher o£ incomparable tedinique; EauxFortes sur Paris, 1850-54, best-known ork.





GENERAL. World wide trade with Britain retaining lead; nine-tenths of financial transactions in international market conducted in pounds sterling, 1871-1914. Europe’s population increased almost 50 per cent; 25 million Europeans migrated to the United States, 1871-1914. ENGLAND. First employers’ Liability Act, 1880, compensated workers for injuries incurred which were not their own fault; Irish Acts, 1881-91, included Land Court to fix rents, designed to protect peasants’ tenure and allow them compensation for selfmade improvements (succeeded only in reducing rents); Land Purchase Act of 1891 allowed tenant to borrow from government to purchase land; Sidney and Beatrice Webb founded the Fabian Society, 1884; slum clearance began with housing for workers, 1890; Miners’ Federation of Great Britain, 1888, marked extension of trade unionism to less skilled workers; National consumers’ League, 1890 (in U. S., 1899), organized to promote better conditions for workers by encouraging the purchase of articles made and sold under good working conditions. FRANCE. Trade unions recognized by law, 1884; criminal law modified; right of divorce recognized, 1884; creation of more hygienic conditions and medical care for labor, 1893; 10-hour day, Sunday free, and more protection for women and children. Act of 1892, most labor unions joined General confederation of Labor, 1895; Workmen s compensation Law passed, 1898. SPAIN. Economic development of country led to increasing labor unrest; under liberal prime minister, Sagasta, 1886-90, civil code and introduction ot trial by jury, more liberal press an association laws., u j ITALY. Bank of Italy established, 1893; law forbade state banks to advance loans on real estate, limited tlieir powers of discount, reduced paper money maximum; limited attempts to better economic conditions an. balance budget.





Europe RUSSIA. Following the 1st FiveYear Plan, 1928, economic regimentation extended control over natural resources, large industry, and agriculture; the 2nd Five-Year Plan, 1932, increased industrial production; after 1936, a planned economy became a war economy; urban population doubled between 1926 and 1939; following the %var, dynamic efforts to increase production, construction of new hydroelectric plants, canals, railroads, and important scientific and technological development made Russia not only Europe’s outstanding power, but a strong competitor for world leadership. ENGLAND, France, West Germany, Belgium, Holland, and Italy all suffered severe economic setbacks through a dislocation of trade balance, loss of colonies, lack of self-sufficiency, and currency depreciation and inflation; attempts have been made to speed economic recovery through the European Recovery Plan, organization for European Economic cooperation, Schuman Plan, European Economic Community (Common Market), with various degrees of success. Middle East Turkey and Greece received aid from the United States following World War II; the Soviet Union extended aid to Syria; the great oil reserves of the Arab nations remained both the hope of economic and social progress in the area and a source of political concern to the rek of the world; Egypt’s new nationalism and control of the Suez Canal sparked Arab cooperation; Israel grew into a progressive, industrialized state but, forced to divide its energies and resources between military and constructive needs, the nation’s future remained uncertain; Middle East attempts to develop more diverse economies, improve agricultural methods, and increase industrialization met with limited success; generally speaking, the majority of the people of the Middle East remained in poverty.