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General Economy Agriculture. Early peoples were skillful shepherds, farmers; well-irrigated fields yielded vegetables, grain, dates, olives, vineyards, fruit orchards; most domesticated animals now known were worked in early period; cattle were bred; oxen joined to plough; elephant may have been tamed in India, where water buffalo were used and domestic fowl believed to have originated; linen, flax, and cotton produced in Egypt; many varieties of fruits and grains grown in Fertile Crescent. Commerce. Trade developed when unfavorable agricultural conditions existed or need arose to dispose of surplus products; babylonians were early businessmen and traders; trade with Egypt flourished by 2700; phoenicians left rocky terrain for the sea cl 500; traded in metals, glass, ivory, purple dyes; bought raw materials, metals, and slaves from Lebanese in return for wool; phoenicians credited with first organized slave trade; Cretans traded their pottery, textiles, and metal goods with Egypt in 2d millennium bc; iron, tin, and silver from western Europe supplied the eastern Mediterranean; carried largely by phoenicians, leading merchant sailors by 1200; later by Greeks; silk, known in China as early as 3d millennium, carried overland to India, cl 500, later to Middle East. Finance. Barter the first universal method of exchange; gold and silver came into use at an early date; in China copper coins replaced cowrie shells as the principal measure of value; babylonians and Assyrians excellent financiers; used clay tablets; established business forms, including contracts, letters of credit, commercial loans, and receipts; taxes and rates of interest were regulated.





Colonial Expansion PHOENICIAN. By 1200, extensive commercial centers developed along the mediterranean, with ports at western Sicily and on coasts of North Africa; Carthage, founded c853, became greatest colony, used exclusively as commercial center, not for settlement of peoples on land; by 6th century trading stations extended to include Sardinia, Balearic Islands, greater part of southern Spain; North Africa became productive region, and Spain was opened as source of silver and copper; domestic animals were introduced, and caravan routes were extended in western Sahara Desert. GREEK. overpopulation and economic discontent caused by lack of arable land stimulated colonization; during 7th and 6th centuries bc, Greek settlements spread around coasts of Black Sea and along northern mediterranean coasts into southern Italy, with largest center Sicily; other colonies at Syracuse, Naxos, Cumae, Tarentum, Massilia (marseilles) , Gyrene (Libya), and Byzantium (658 bc); acquisition of additional territories enabled Greeks to find new sources of food, land for excess population, and profitable trade benefiting colonists and mother country or city. Finance Coinage. Infinite variety of currencies including corn, salt, amber, shells, and cattle; Assyrians used (1400) lumps of lead bearing impression designating value





Ostrogoths. Moved into Byzantine Empire from southern Russia; established kingdom in Italy with capital at Ravenna. Angles and Saxons. Least civilized of Germanic tribes; together with Jutes, subdued Romanized Celts in Britain; Celts fled to Wales and Scotland. Huns. Central Asian people; harassed Germans and Romans; set tribes in motion; withdrew after brief period of pillage and destruction. America Mayan Civilization. Three classes of society included priests and warriors as leaders, farmers and traders as middle class, and slaves at bottom; development of important cities, including Copin, Tikal, Palenque; agrarian economy; maize, chief product; religion important part of every activity. Asia CHINA. Commerce. Trade in silk, most important product of antiquity; beginning in last century bc. Great Silk Road passed through Tarim River basin to central Asia; at Kashgar, exchange made for trip farther west; journey took 7 months from Ch’angan to Kashgar; to Syria, one year; only silk, worth its weight in gold, valuable enough to repay transportation cost; usually exported in raw state, silk woven in Syria; paid for in gold. Agriculture. Many new products came from central Asia; tea, known earlier, widely cultivated from 4th century; rice production increased by planting on terraced hillsides. Guilds. Urban organizations of separate occupations; fixed prices, hours, quality standards; violations tried in courts. social-economic Pattern. Family and guild governed people, largely untouched by political events; peasantfarmer, paying more or less of crop as tax, lived by tradition; neither prospering nor starving; aristocracy exploited villagers under their control.





Europe New Testament. 40-125 ad. Second or Christian portion of the Bible; account of origin, early development of christianity in 27 books, including: Gospels, biographies of Jesus, Matthew, Mark, Luke and John; Acts of the Apostles, history of missionary activity; Epistles, a basis of later doctrine and practice; apocalypse. The Revelation of St. John the Divine. Augustine, St. (Aurelius augustinus) Foremost Church Father; confessions, classic of Christian mysticism, profound autobiography; best-known work, City of God, apology for christianity, contrasted pagan city with city of God, refuted charges that christianity caused fall of Rome, important arguments against heresies; most influential figure in Christian history after Paul and prior to Aquinas. Ambrose, St. Famous Church father; opposed Arianism; Hexaemeron (Six Days) outstanding scriptural commentary; christianized Roman ideas and morals. Origen (Origines adamantius) Famous teacher, Alexandria; author of many commentaries on Scriptures including Hexapala, outstanding textual criticism; De principiis (On First Principles or fundamental Doctrines) blended Greek philosophy and Christian thought. Jerome, St. (sophronius Eusebius hieronymus) Church father; greatest contribution, translation of the Scriptures into vernacular Latin, upon which modern Vulgate Bible based; one of best early writers for style, wit; wrote Vitae Sanctorum (Lives of the Saints) earliest example of popular form of medieval literature. John Chrysostom, St. Great preacher of Eastern Church; Archbishop of Constantinople; harmonized Christian doctrine with Greek rhetoric and thought. Tertullian (Quintus Septimius Florens tertullianus) Roman theologian;. Carthage. Author of first important jhristian writings in Latin; apologeicus, outstanding patristic work.





Romon Empire Architecture. Rome’s distinctive contributions were: development of the arch, dome, vault; monumental, secular utilitarian buildings, including baths, amphitheaters, triumphal arches, stadiums, forums, palaces, courthouses, libraries, apartment houses, and shops; clarity of form, simplicity yet grandeur of design. 1st Century. Pont du Gard, Nimes, beautiful early aqueduct; used principle of gravity; lower arcli supported bridge, upper series supported water channel. Colosseum. Huge amphitheater for public entertainment, gladiatorial contests; vast concrete bowl raised upon tiers of arches; seated 50,000 spectators; popular, imposing ruin. 2nd Century. Rome’s greatest period; Forum of Trojan, completed 113; uniquely Roman conception, forum was a civic project; based on unified plan of related structures and courtyards; large paved quadrangle, approached through triple archway, flanked by two arched colonnades; adjacent to square was Basilica Ulpia, rectangular hall of polychrome marble; double outside colonnades of red granite, -white marble capitals; balcony above, second tier of columns supporting roof beams; semicircular apses at either end housed courts; two libraries, one for Greek and one for Latin books. Baths. Trajan, Caracalla, and Diocletian; public buildings providing hot, cold, and tepid swimming pools, dressing rooms, g) mnasiums, lecture halls, libraries, art galleries witli statuarj and murals; cross vaulting in Baths of Trajan earliest known use of concrete; method permitted spanning of larger spaces, increasing light; influenced later arcliitecturcapartment Houses. Rome had almost 50,000 multiple dwellings by -Itli century; stairways led from shops on ground floor to living quarters above.





MUSIC Rome Popular music of the Romans created and performed for festivals, contests, and colossal public spectacles was, of necessity, loud; only large clioruses and several groups of musicians could be heard in amphitheaters; huge instruments, including hydraulic and pneumatic organs, required several performers to operate; classical style, in poor imitation of Greeks, used by smaller ensembles. CHRISTIAN MUSIC. Ignatius, St., Bishop of Antioch; introduced antiphonal singing based on Hebrew psalm singing, Greek chorus, and Roman citharoedic chants. Basil, St., the Great. c330-379. Father of Greek Church; revised liturgy; created one of main types of Mass. Chrysostom, John, St. Greatest of Greek fathers; developed second main type of Mass; oriental influence strong; psalms sung antiphonally and responsorially, Ambrose, St. Bishop of Milan; interested in reforming ceremony and music of Church; attempted to eliminate secular and pagan elements; wrote excellent sermons, hymns; regarded as founder of hymnody and Ambrosian cliant; used four authentic modes comparable to Greek primary modes; no meter. Prudentius. Early Spanish Church poet; composed hymns considered more brilliant than those of Ambrose. General. monasteries, centers of learning, trained choirs; fulfilled need for singers as liturgy became more elaborate and congregational singing declined; School of Chant established, Rome, early 4th century; melodies handed down aurally from master to pupils in all schools; growing repertory increased difficulty. Asia CHINA. Music and poetry closely linked; Shen Yiieh, poet, led in development of music as separate art form; important part of dance program.





c950-1003 Famed epics, including Beowulf





INDIA. Architecture. Buddhist influence waned and Hindu and Jain revived; Hindu temple an object of worship rather than a place of worship; use of corbelled arch, featured gopurams (gateways), choultries (ceremonial halls) with ornately decorated thousand columns; northern IndoAryan style dominated period; shrines known for sikhara (towers) rounded at top, curvilinear outline, decorated with sculptured reliefs; Dravidian or southern style, usually in shape of truncated pyramid; outstanding example, magnificent Brahman temple of Kailasha at Ellora, free standing, hewn and carved from single mass of rock; shore temple of mamallapuram, carved rathas (pagodas) of unusual beauty. Sculpture. Descent of Ganges, supreme achievement, rock sculpture cut 80 feet long, 30 feet high; free-standing sculpture including eight-armed Sivas, Kailasa Temple, Trimurti (three-headed) Siva, Elephanta Island near Bombay, stone deer at mamallapuram, beautiful examples of plastic expression of Hindu concept of divinity. Cambodia. Period 800-1000 marked merger of Khmer style based on both Chinese and Indian works; capital built late 9th century, Angkor Thom; center, true temple-mountain, pyramidal structure, stairways oh four sides, lion-guarded. JAPAN. Sculpture. Among artists imported by Asuka rulers was Tori ■ Busshi, famed sculptor, cast principal bronzes -in Golden Hall at Horyuji, established Buddhist style from Northern Wei Dynasty of China; Toris technique one of many popular styles; work with clay, bronze, wood, drylacquer; kanshitsu (lacquer-and-cloth) technique introduced about 665, great Buddhas erected, enormous Todaiji or Daihatsu at Nara; sculpture of 9th century mostly of wood; soft, sensuous, ample figures, solemn dignity.





Europe Romanesque Art. Religious art derived from classic and oriental sources; dynamic, expressive, naturalistic. Architecture. Developed from Roman basilica; used principally in abbey churches of Italy and France; ornamentation added; wheel or rose windows illuminated tlie nave; towers. Campanile (bell) at Pisa (Leaning Tower); importance of stone construction; introduction of latin-cross plan; choir section enlarged; Sant’ Ambrogio, Milan, illustrated application of rib vault to roofing basilica, major innovation; abbaye-aux-hommes (St. £tienne), Caen, represented further development by Normans of ribbed vault principle; nave divided into bays with higher vaults; abbaye-aux-dames (St. Trinitd) neighboring church, used concealed flying buttress; foreshadowed pointed-arcli principle; Norman style adopted in England; Winchester Cathedral (cl 093), Tower of London (1 078-1 128), Norwich (1096-11 10) and Durham Cadiedrals (1093-1128), westminster Abbey (Church of Peter the Apostle) 1056, Ifllcy Parish Church, Oxford (1160), peterborough Cathedral (cl HO), excellent examples of Romanesque English architecture. Monastic Romanesque Style. Third Abbey Cliurch at Cluny; basilica, many-windowed derestorj; highest contemporary barrel vaulting; first external flying buttresses; altar columns of surpassingbeauty. Sculpture. Superb sculptural capit.-ils, relief compositions, including the tympanum over the central portal of Abbey Church of La Madeleine at Wrelay, France; examples of Romanesque sculpture, integral parts of architectural design; vitality shown in trumeau (central post) between double doors of wide apertures. illuminated Manuscripts. outstanding work done by monastic orders; Chiniac copyists and illuminators lc.aders in art; freedom of, im.aginalion; initial letters became complex designs; pen drasvings, small paintings. ibn-Zuhr tAvenzoar,;^





Bayeux Tapestry. Completed in English embroidery workshop; eloquent pictorial document; one of rare secular subjects. Gothic Art. culmination of major artistic acliievements of medieval period; Gothic architecture saw merging of interior and exterior design, creating unity; distinct new sculptural style emerged in IStli century; stained glass windows achieved radiant effects by prismatic transformation and combination of light and color; introduction of new secular themes in illuminated manuscripts enhanced that art. Architecture. Important substitution of a pointed for a rounded arch; pointed arch allowed greater freedom of vertical motion; crowns of individual vaults could be raised to equal heights; pointing and narrowing of arclies allowed for changes in shapes; additional support needed where vault rested on wall solved by use of buttress; flying buttresses’ long, thin, stone supports bolstered exterior of building at various points; Gothic building broader, side chapels added; brilliant example. Cathedral of Notre Dame, Chartres; Abbey Church of St. Denis, near Paris, prototype of Gothic arcliitecture, became model for cathedrals, including Rlieims (rebuilt 1210), Amiens (1220-88), Notre Dame, Paris (1163-1235), and Rouen (begun 1200) Sculpture. iconographic carving in depth; 2,000 figures on exterior of Chartres; trumeau figures at Amiens, vigorous naturalism. Stained Glass. Developed art by second half of 12th century; allied to art of mosaics, replaced mural and ceiling painting; abstract two-dimensional design, 175 panels at Chartres; rose windows of Chartres, Rheims, Notre Dame, Paris, exceptional examples.





Kiddle East The Ryz.intine Empire had shrunk to a small area by the end of tlie 13th century, including Greece, Macedonia, and the western coast of the Anatolian peninsula. From 1201 to 1261 constantinople was dominated by the Western Europeans; after 1261 a new line of Greek emperors (the palaeologi) established their authority. Genoese merchants gained trading posts and privileges in tlie Black Sea and on its southeast coast the independent Greek state of Trebizond grew wealthy as a center of East-West comtncrce. The power of the Moslems, halfshattered by the ^^ongol invasion of the 13th century, revived in the 11th under the Ottoman Turks. They pressed nearer to constantinople and outflanked it by establishing themselves in Thrace. By 1100 the Ottoman emperor Bayazid I ruled most of the Balkan peninsula and Anatolia, virtually surrounding the Greeks at Constantinople. But a new advance of the Mongols (under Tamerlane) in 1102 temporarily weakened and divided the growing Ottoman empire. European commerce witli Asia revived in the lltli century as the trade routes and cities recovered from the effects of Genghis Khan’s campaigns. But after 1380 the new Mongol conqueror, Tamerlane build up a large empire from the Euphrates to tlie Indus. In 1393 he captured Baghdad, and in 1398 he sacked Delhi, but his empire ceased to grow after his death in 1105.





The development of a money economy through the increase of trade and commerce resulted in the rapid growth of towns cmd a breaking up of the feudal manor system. The rise of towns increased the importance of the merchant class. Town councils regulated commerce and industry, including agricultural trade and prices, public works, and relief of the poor. The merchant guild gave way to powerful craft guilds. associations of merchant (Aansas) not only controlled the flourishing trade along the Atlantic seaboard and the Baltic, but some of the inland fairs as well. The coinage of money, establishment of a credit system, the use of bills of exchange, and the important development of doubleentry bookkeeping initiated a new capitalist world of business enterprise to compete with the existing corporate methods and powerful guilds.





Western Europe ITALY. Long the leading merchants of Europe with a flourishing Levantine and eastern trade, the Italians were also the leading bankers of Europe; great wealth of Florentine bankers received setback, 1343, with repudiation of debts by Edward III of England, causing failure of houses of Peruzzi and Bardi; outstanding contribution made to commerce with standardization of coinage; first florin coined in Florence, 1252; first gold ducat at Venice, 1284; ‘putting-out’ system of manufacture in home for market, first used in Italy and spread to the North; rapid recovery from plague of 1347; although serfdom was abolished in Florence, 1282, laborers’ lot improved little; result: ciompi revolt, 1378; Merchants Handbook, written in 1340 by Pegolotti, extremely valuable guide for merchants and excellent account of commercial relation with Asia; treaty between Venetians and Ottoman Turks, 1388, first effort to assure trade privileges despite rise of Turkish power. FRANCE. Crusade of Louis IX, schemes of Anjou, and wars of the Philips against England and Flanders caused serious financial problems; Philip IV attempted to raise money by every means, including enacting maltote, sales tax; first collection of gabelle, salt tax, 1341; increasing levies caused mounting dissatisfaction; Estates General passed Great Ordinance, 1357, providing for supervision of levies and taxes, poor relief, and other reforms; Jacquerie, violent peasant revolt against taxes, 1358, crushed by nobles; Charles V reorganized finances and forbade Hearth Tax which was, however, renewed during period of economic distress following 1385.





ENGLAND. With the decline of the Fairs, Market Day, controlled by the towns, gained in importance; regular supply of needed goods and money brought into towns; foreign merchandise introduced; new industry stimulated; Carta mercatoria, 1303, granted hanses (flemish-london hansa and Hanseatic League) and other merchants freedom of trade and safe conduct in return for payment of custom dues; following the plague, decline in population, together tvith war prosperity, resulted in rise of prices and wages, causing Statutes of Laborers to be passed by royal proclamation, 1349, forcing all able-bodied men not otherwise employed to %vork the land at standard wages; economic and social crisis continued; with passage of graduated poll tax to pay war expenses, 1379, tension mounted, climaxed by peasants’ Revolt, 1381; revolt failed, but was evidence of growing determination of serfs to gain freedom; early Navigation Act, 1381, established trend toward economic intervention in commerce by state. Central Europe GERMANY AND FLANDERS. Hanseatic League still powerful, comprised 90 towns, including Bruges, Flanders, terminus point and great commercial center; inland German cities of Leipzig and Magdeburg; and great Rhine port of Cologne; during this period the League virtually monopolized trade of northern Europe; there also were offices and warehouses in London, Stockholm, Bergen, and Novgorod. Pope granted commercial freedom to the Teutonic Knights in 1263, and they successfully competed with the towns. Eastern Europe Hexabiblos, Byzantine adaptation of Roman civil law, in 6 books with 80 titles, by harmenopulos, judge of thessalonica, published and adopted, 1345.





EDUCATION Europe Founding of great colleges and universities, including Sorbonne, Paris, 1252; Lisbon, 1290; Balliol College, Oxford, 1268; Alcala, Portugal, 1293; Rome, 1303; Prague, 1348; Grenoble, 1339; Valladolid, 1346; Vienna, 1365; New College, Oxford, 1379; Heidelberg, 1386, and others. Medicine added to curriculum at University of Bologna, 1316, though montpellier remained foremost medical scliool. ITALY. Petrarch, Francesco. outstanding scholar; first great ‘man of letters’: with Boccaccio, spurred revival of interest in Latin and Greek classics: helped found chair in Greek at University of Florence; constructed first modern map of Italy. Salutati, Coluccio. As Chancellor of Florence, made study of classics fashionable. chrysoloras, Manuel. Greek scholar; gave first public lectures on classics; UTote first Greek grammar; translations of Plato and Homer; introduced Greek Literature to West; teacher of many famous humanists. Planudes Maximus. Byzantine monk and scliolar; translations from Greek into Latin; edition of Greek Anthology, long a standard work; prose collection of Aesop’s Fables important. Asia CHINA. empire-wide system of schools confined to memorization of Confucian classics, letter-svriting, and composition; high examinations given orally at Peking, primarily for selection of government officials. Chu Shih-chieh. Published textbook, Suan-hsio Chi-meng (matliematical Study introduction), 1299; influential in Japan, lost in China until 1839. Wang Ling-Iing. Author of primer used for 600 years in education. ^ • JAPAN. Zen Buddhist priests dV veloped educational system.





Ethiopia, author of Mashafa Berhan (Book of Light) Various works on lives of saints and martyrs including Life of T ekla Haymanot, great national saint of Ethiopia of 13th century RELIGION AND EDUCATION





Middle East SYRIA AND EGYPT. Mameluke sultans levied burdensome taxes, including corn levy, and added to misery of people; forbade importation of spices, from India, including pepper; monopolized manufacture of sugar; plague caused death of hundreds of thousands; famine, starvation prevailed; population reduced by estimated twothirds; with Portuguese mastery of Indian Ocean and attacks by other Eurot pean fleets, traffic in spices and tropical products of India and Arabia was permanently diverted from Syrian and Egyptian ports. Asia Moslem commercial operations based chiefly on Malacca were extended to whole Malayan archipelago. JAPAN. The Ashikaga shogun issued Acts of Grace (Tokusei) which were sweeping debt cancellations for benefit of the whole debtor class.





Western Europe ITALY. Pacioli, Luca. Franciscan monk; earliest printed book on existing knowledge of arithmetic and algebra in Italy, Venice, 1494; rules given for fundamental operations of arithmetic and for extracting square roots; commercial arithmetic using methods discussed; employed algebraic methods in geometry; inscribed hexagon and equilateral triangle played part in Gothic architecture; important influence. Caslaldi, Pamfilo. Humanist; credited by some with invention of printing, though evidence is not clear; invention was supposedly revealed to Gutenberg by Castaldi s pupil, Johann Fust; used type made of Murano glass. Bianco, Andrea (Biancho) Early 15th century Venetian cartographer; left collection of hydrographical charts; one, dated 1436, shows two islands west of Azores named Antilla and De laman Satanaxio; from this evidence scholars have claimed that new world rvas knorvn before voyages of Columbus. Toscanelli, Paolo. cosmographer, mathematician, physician; map and plan of world thought to have been used by Columbus in planning explorations. Vinci, Leonardo da. Great artist, scientist, engineer; anticipated many discoveries and inventions, including man’s conquest of the air, but his notebooks, filled witli studies in meclianics, hydraulics and optics, and matliematical, anatomical and botanical observations, were written in lefthanded mirror script and had no influence since the 7,000 preserved pages were not transcribed until 19th century; designed armored tank, breach-loading cannons, and guided projectiles for Cesare Borgia, 1502. Manutius, Aldus. Founded Aldine Press, Venice, cl490; in 1499, published collection of ancient writings on astronomy (scriptores astronomici veteres) which was read by Copernicus while studying in Italy at that time (see next period) ENGLAND. 1494. First paper mill I, --T■■ -1 ■,-i





SPAIN. Santillana, fnigo Lopez de Mendoza, marques de. Poet; important as leading figure of Spanish literature of century; sonnets, long dramatic poems; influenced by Italians. Mona, Juan de. Poet, scholar; masterpiece, long allegorical poem, Laberinto de Fortune, 300 stanzas, 1444, modeled after Dante. FRANCE. Comines, Philippe de. Historian -whose Memoires sur les rhgnes de Louis XI et de Charles VIII is one of the classics of medieval history; excellent, penetrating analysis of men and motives. Villon, Francois. Poet; one of few pre-renaissance writers to express real sentiment, no formalized concepts of courtly love; Testaments, Lesser, 1456, and Great, 1461, satirical portraits, provocative and realistic. GERMANY. Celtes, Konrad. Poet, scholar; outstanding humanist, founded learned societies, spread new knowledge of period; first German poet laureate. BYZANTIUM. Gemistus, Georgius (Georgios Gemisthos) Platonic philosopher and scholar, called Plethon; flourished during first half of century; inspired study of Plato; persuaded Cosimo de Medici to found Florentine Academy; influential in revival of learning in Europe. PORTUGAL. Lopes, Fernao. Father of Portuguese historiography; wrote chronicles on lives of kings; first outstanding prose writer in his language. Africa Zar a Yd Qob, King. One of the greatest kings of Ethopia; wrote seven important books including Mashafa Berliam (Book of Light) which attempted to steer his people away from reliance on magic and superstition.





THEATER Asia JAPAN. Zeami Motokiyo. outstanding No dramatist; responsible for at least 93 famous plays, including Atsumori and Hagoromo; important influence later on puppet theater; believed responsible for music, pantomimic dance, and management; libretti written by Buddhist monks, almost all literary men of period belonging to this class. CHINA. p’i-p’a-ki (Story of the Lute) in 24 scenes, first performed, 1404; best known of Ming plays; reputedly written by someone named Kao. hsi-hsiang-ki, popular play, written in 1260. INDIA. Vyasa iriramadeva. Wrote shadow plays during first half of 15th century; based on episodes from mahabharata and Ramayana. Europe SPAIN. Encina, Juan del. outstanding Spanish dramatist; considered precursor of Lop^ de Vega; important influence on future development of theater; mote first nativity or religious pastoral, 1492; Cancionero, 1496, contained musical and lyrical compositions. ITALY. Politian (Angelo Ambrogini) Poet, humanist; wrote Orfeo, one of finer lyric works of Renaissance; earliest Italian play of any real quality. Boiardo, Matteo. cl434-94. Poet, dramatist; known for Timone, a comedy. ENGLAND. Medwall, Henry. Author of earliest English secular drama, Fulgens and Lucres, interlude, in two parts, 1497 (printed, 1513-19); chaplain to Cardinal Morton. FRANCE. Under Louis XI, ‘brothers of the Passion established theater, cl467, which presented religious • and secular works.





Western Europe PORTUGAL. Continued exploration and conquest, including commercial success of da Gama’s second voyage and magellan’s circumnavigation of globe; albuquerque, realizing importance of control of Indian Ocean for ventures into Red Sea, established base at Socotra, off east coast of Africa; from here controlled entry to Persian Gulf, intercepted spice cargoes and established one of most important markets in world for eastern products; base at Malacca dominated western end of Chinese trade and all trade across bay of Bengal. SPAIN. Vast empire created by a financially weak government; Casa de contratacidn, 1503, founded for purpose of regulating trade with America; licensed all ships, received revenues, collected averia, convoy tax and other duties; also court of law for trade, Vitoria, Francisco de. Wrote important pioneer work on colonial management and international law, De Indis et de iure belli relectiones, 1532. ENGLAND. craft-guild system weakened by rise of merchant capitalists and putting-out system; industry became merchant-employer system with craftsmen no longer selling directly but ivorking for merchants and becoming wage earners; guilds and companies placed under state supervision by Henry VII, 1504; efficient though arbitrary financial system created; Enclosure Acts benefited large landowners; many peasants driven into industry. Commercial treaty with Spain, 1515, and establishment of company of English merchants in Spain, 1530; important voyages of William Hawkins to Brazil, 1530-32.





Central Europe GERMANY. Fugger, Jacob the Rich. One of the early capitalists; holdings of family reached throughout most of Western Europe; forced to lend money to Charles V and Hapsburgs; brilliant manager of mining, real estate, and merchandising interests, as well as banker; in 1541, secured right to sell papal indulgences in Germany; established “fuggerei, ” settlement for poor, at Augsburg, 1519. At Esslingen (Bavaria) 1524,. regulation of coinage system in attempt to unify German monetary system. peasants’ War in Swabia and Franconia, 1524-25; rose against social, economic inequalities of late German feudalism, having gained inspiration from (and misinterpreting) Luther’s revolt against authority; incorporated demands in revolutionary Twelve Articles; repudiated by Luther; defeated and cruelly punished; end of free peasantry in Germany, anabaptists in Thuringia also attempted religious-social revolt; defeated. SWEDEN. Gustavus I, by Treaty of 1537, put an end to trade monopoly of Hanseatic League in Baltic region. Middle East The claim that conquest of Syria and Egypt by Turks, 1516-17, forced Europeans to find new trade routes unproven; actually, the Turkish sultans, particularly Suleiman, did what they could to reopen the near-eastern routes. General New products were introduced into Western Europe as a result of exploration and discoveries, including coffee, 1517; chocolate, 1520; cocoa beans, 1528; manufacture of silk introduced, 1521; cultivation of sugar cane began in Brazil, 1532.





The high renaissctnce produced on incredible number of great masters, including michelangelo, Raphael, Titian, and Giorgione in Italy; Diirer, Holbein, and Griinewald in Germany; and Massys in the Netherlands. Venice joined Rome and Florence as centers of creativity. The masters of Venetian painting were concerned not only with the dignity of man as expressed by the FlorenUnes, but, as seen in the landscapes of Giorgione, were interested in extolling the joys of life and of nature. In architecture, Bramante started St. Peter s in Rome, while in Venice Sansovino s work represented the transition from the renaissance to the Baroque style. In Japan, Kano Masanobu and Kano Molonobu established the Kano school of pcdnUng.





PAINTING Western Europe ITALY. michelangelo Buonarroti. Florentine genius whose magnificent sculpture and paintings inspired and had profound influence on all artists of later periods; studied with ghirlandaio and influenced by Donatello; famous for statues, David, Moses, figures at tomb of Pope Julius II, extraordinary paintings on ceiling of Sistine Chapel; versatility also seen in architecture, poetry. Titian (Vecellio Tiziano) Great master; represented development of dramatic monumentality characteristic of high renaissance composition, expressed with intensity and strength of color; portraits not only bore strong resemblance to sitter, but gave subject unique vitality and individuality. Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio) scholarartist, one of finest masters of period; work in Florence showed new freedom of expression; known for Madonnas; important work at Vatican, including large murals; classical themes; versatile, succeeded Bramante as chief arcliitect, St. Peter’s. Giorgione (Giorgio barbarelli) Venetian artist; studied with Bellini; innovator in use of color, landscape, and free expression. Correggio (Antonio Allegri) Famous for lyrical frescoes; influence on art of 16th and 17th centuries in Italy almost as great as Michelangelo’s. Clovio, Giorgio. 1498-1578. Regarded as one of greatest miniaturists and illuminators; master technician and colorist; masterpiece. Book of the Hours of the Blessed Virgin. Sebastiano del Piombo (sebastiano Luclani). cl485-1547. Venetian artist: noted frescoes, excellent portraits. Signorelli, Luca. cl441-1523. Umbrian; studied with della Francesca; introduced powerful treatment of anatomy: influenced Michelangelo. Raimondi, marcantonio, cl4801527/34. Master engraver. SPAIN. Berniguete, Alonso. cl4861561. Sculptor, painter of religious works.





MUSIC Western Europe FLEMISH. Josquin des Pr6s. Great master composer; compared to michelangelo by contemporaries for independence of spirit and refusal to write to order without regard to quality: considered creator of new mass; motets approached a cappella ideal; composed three books of masses, more than 100 motets, and many secular songs; unique expressive quality as well as teclmical skill. Willaert, Adrien (Adriaan). Master, Venice; clroirmaster, St. Mark’s, 1527, highest musical position in Venice; considered first to use double chorus with great skill, there being two organs and two clioirs at St. Mark’s; created new hannonic style; developed the canzone, instrumental piece; prolific composer of masses, motets and, most important, madrigals. Gomhert, Nicolas. Composer; considered josqnin’s outstanding pupil; excelled in interpreting texts in expressive musical terms; composed approximately 250 works, including songs and motets; accompanied Charles V to Seville, 1526; influential in Spain. Buos, Jachet (Jacques de) d. 1565. Composer, organist; known for ricercari, instrumental counterpart of motet; worked in Venice; composed organ tnitsic, works for diamfaer orchestra. crecquillon, Thomas. cl557. Composer of chansons, motets, masses; choirmaster. Imperial Chapel, Charles V, Netfierlands. NETHERLANDS. Clemens, Jacob (Also known as Jacques Cldment and clemcns-non-papa) Contrapuntist; renoTvned composer; introduced new tise of well-balanced polyphony witli fresli melody and clear harmony; first kappellmeistcr, Emperor Charles V, Vienna; wrote psalms, masses, chansons, motets, etc. Arcodelf, Jacob. cI5H-c70. influential composer of Venetian sdiool of madrigals; scn cd Duke of Guise, Paris; famed for sccul.ar compositions.





THEATER Western Europe SPAIN. Rueda, Lope de. Important founder of popular national theater; created dramatic genre known as pasos, destined to be characteristic of Spain; eartliy quality, using language and manners of peasants or country people; Paso de las asceilunas (The Olives), Enfemia, Los enganados (The Cheaters); forerunner of Golden Age of Spanish drama. PORTUGAL. Vicente, Gil. Dramatist; considerable influence in shaping modern Spanish and Portuguese theater; outstanding figure in Iberian Renaissance. Sa de Miranda, Francisco de. Important for introducing Italian renaissance and classical style to Portugal; lived in Italy; two comedies. Os estrangeiros, cl 527, vilhalpandos, cl 537, foundation of Portuguese classical theater. ITALY. Ariosto, Lodovico. Dramatist; comedies, including The Casket, 1508; first true modern comedy; I Sup positi, II Negromante, satires; excellent characterizations, understanding of contemporary society; plots used byshakespeare and others. Trissino, Gian. 1478-1550. Author, first poetic drama rvritten according to classical rules (neoclassical) ; used blank verse in tragedy, Sophonisha, 1515, new style adapted by otfjers; influenced by Euripides. moehiavelfi, Niceolo. Author of ribald comedy, Mandragola (The Mandrake), 1524, and several other successful satiric comedies. Arefino, Pietro (Bacci) 1492-1556. Satirist; comedies, including La Carte giana, and tragedy, Orazia; referred to as ‘Scourge of Princes.’ ENGLAND. Bale, John. 1495-1563. reformation plays; showed transition from medieval morality play to renaissance historical drama.





Western Europe SPAIN. acquisition of vast empire and accumulation of wealth should have made Spain great modern power, but necessary administrative strength and wise fiscal policy were lacking, and country’s prosperity and prestige steadily declined; neglect of agriculture through failure to preserve excellent moor-constructed irrigation system reflected contempt for physical labor; Spanish population decreased; strict regulation of colonial trade crippled commerce of colonies, and smuggling resulted; cruel treatment of native labor lessened productivity; repudiation of debts forfeited German credit; loss of Armada, 1588, ended naval supremacy. PORTUGAL, considerable trade resulted from occupation of Spice Islands and points along Indian and African coasts; but internal strength unequal to strain imposed by rapid and overextended expansion; insufficient naval power to defend trading monopoly; unorganized distribution of Eastern commodities, few goods for exchange, corrupt officialdon all contributed to economic decline. ENGLAND. freebooters, with tacit approval of crown, active iii Atlantic, Caribbean, and Pacific areas; success of Drake, including circumnavigation of globe, an example; chartering of Muscovy (Russia) Company, 1555; regulated company of Merchant adventurers, 1564; joint-stock trading Levant (Turkey) Company, 1581, and East India Company, 1600, greatly expanded trade and foreshadowed vast. overseas commercial empire; laws pronoting exportation of grain and proibiting exportation of wool enacted; igh Commission Court established, 599; Benefit of Clergy Act 1576, proclaimed all clerics must be tried by secular courts. Africa Hawkins, 1562-76, started slave trade between Africa and America, -making three voyages from West Africa to New World with slave cargoes; Dutch, English, and Portuguese continued ex





•^ALY, Porta, giambattista dello. Physicist; credited ■with inventing camera obscura, described in Magiae naturalis (Natural Magic), 1569; founder, scientific group called Accademia Secretorum Naturae, Naples; exponent of esoteric experimentation. Eustachi, Bartolomeo. Anatomist; described many structures of human body, including eustacliian tube of ear, adrenal glands, thoracic duct, uterus, kidneys; investigated structure, development of teeth; Tabulae ariatomwae, 1552, remarkable set of anatomical drawings (pub. 1714). caesalplnus, Andreas (cesalpino) Physician, botanist; chief work, De planlis, 1583, first classification of plants according to their fruits; first systematic scheme of botanical classification (so considered by Linnaeus); ahead of his time with tlieory of blood circulation. Fallopius (Gabriele Fallopio) 152362. Anatomist: pupil, successor to Vesalius, Padua; discovered Fallopian tubes. FRANCE. Palissy, Bernard, cl 510c89. \Yrote important work on fossil remains of fishes and shells, 1580, concluding that places ivhere fossils were found had once been covered by sea or fresh water, a step toward rational geology. Rondelet, Guillaume. 1507-66. Naturalist, knorvn especially for studies of fish of mediterranean waters. Asia CHINA. Li Shih-chen. \Vrote outstanding scientific work of Ming period, Pen Tshao Kang Mu, 1578 (pub. 1596); described pharmaceutical value of 1,000 plants and 1,000 animals; discussed distillation, smallpox inoajlation, use of mercury and iodine; 8,000 prescriptions; illustrated with 1,100 woodcuts. Sung Ying-hsing. Wrote T/tien Kung Khai IFw, technological treatise^ describing everytype of manufacturing process.





72. Huguenot composer; music for psalms, including those of Cldment Marot; Psalter, eight books, 1566; popular in hymnals for centuries. Asia INDIA. Tan Sen. Great singer employed by Akbar.





THEATER Europe ENGLAND. shakespeare, William. Greatest dramatist of kVestem world; period of sonnets, 1593-96; lyrical period of best comedies, including A Comedy of Errors, 1591-92, A Midsummer Night’s Dream, 1595, Taming of the Shrew, 1596; greater influence on future dramatists than any other writer. Marlowe, Christopher. elizabethan dramatist, second only to Shakespc.are; established blank verse as appropriate means of expression; Dr. Faustus, tamburlaine, The Jew of Malta. Lyly, John. 1553-1606. Introduced high comedy to England, made prose its vehicle; classical dramas were link between Italian renaissance and elizabethan dramatists. Kyd, Thomas. 1558-94. Dramatist; known as exponent of tragedy of blood’; Spanish Tragedy, 1592, may have been source of ghost and playwithin-a-play of shakespeare s Hamlet. Sackville, Thomas. 1536-1608. kVrotC earliest English tragedy in blank verse. Globe Theater opened, 1599. FRANCE. Cornier, Robert. 15451601. outstanding writer of verse tragedies; Bradamante, 1582, Les Juives, 1583, masterpieces. Jodelle, felienne. 1532-73. Poet of Pleiade; wrote first modern French tragedy, Cleopdtre captive, 1553; first regular comedy, Eugene; introduced alexandrine into French theater. Larivey, Pierre de. 1540-1611. Innovator in adapting Italian originals for French stage; wrote comedies. GERMANY. Sachs, Hans. Mcistcrsinger; wrote 20S plays; scail.ir comedies important development in theater. ITALY. Tosso, Torquato. 1544-95. Author of pastoral Aminta, 1573. SPAIN. Cueva, Juon de la. cl550cl610. Forerunner of Lope de Vega; Los sicte infantes de Lara, 1379, famous play. PORTUGAL Ferreira, Antonio cl52S-69. Dramatist, jxjet; Ines de Castro, J05





MUSIC Europe ITALY. Monteverdi, Claudio. Great innster; created first modern opera combining counterpoint and harmony and making music and orcliestra more important than drama; developed bcl canto arioso; introduced orchestral cfiects, including tremolo, pizi.icato; first to turn madrigal into cantata dc camera; choinnastcr, St. Mark s Venice; retired during plague; after first opera hou.se opened, 1G.B7, returned, wrote last great operas, II Ritorno d’Ulisse, L incoronazionc di Poppea. froscobaldi, Girolamo. Famed organist of St. Peter’s, Rome; composed church and organ works; influenced Gcnnan organists and composers. Cavalli, Piefro (Caletti-Ilruni). IC0276. Succeeded Monteverdi, St. Mark’s, Venice; ‘12 operas, including Doriclca, 1615, which was first mixture of comic and tragic; developed bcl canto aria in Didonc, 16 11; church music. Carissimi, Giacomo, 1605-7 1. Composed earliest examples of true oratorios; powerful, expressive choral u’orks, songs. Land!, Sfeffano. cl590-cl655. First imjjortant opera, Rome; Santo Alcssio, 1632, at Teatro Barberini. Allegri, Gregorio. 1582-1652. Composer, Miserere, in 9 parts for nvo choruses; sung during Holy TVcck. ENGLAND. Gibbons, Orlando. Last of elizabethan composers; madrigals, anthems, services, music for strings. Bull, John. Celebrated elizabethan composer; contrapuntist; virtuoso of liarpsichord and organ. GERMANY. Schutz, Heinrich. Fii st great creator of North German music; forerunner of Bach in settings of the Passion and of Handel in development of the oratorio; influenced grouth of church music; first German opera, Dafne, same libretto by Rimiccini as used by Peri in Italy, 1627; established choral style; great cantatas. NETHERLANDS. Sweelinck, Jan. 1562-1621. Organist, composer; called ‘maker of Gennan organists’; first to give independent part to pedals in.filgMcs.,





Western Europe ENGLAND. First Navigation Act passed, 1651; it forbade importation of goods into country except in English vessels or in ships of country producing goods; Act of Settlement, 1662, prohibited exportation of leather, skins, wool and importation of laces and embroideries; Turnpike Act of 1663 introduced tolls; Great Plague, London, 1665; founding of London Gazette, 1666, year of great fire; Habeas Corpus Act: Judges obliged to issue to prisoner writ showing cause for imprisonment; no person to be imprisoned twice for same offense, 1679; Lloyd’s coffee house became office for marine insurance, 1692; beginning of national debt, one million pounds borrowed on annuities at 10 per cent, 1693; first true stock exchange, vaguely resembling modern type, established, London, 1698. FRANCE. Colbert introduced budget system; attempted to ease tax burden of peasants by correcting abuses of tax-collecting and instituting system of indirect taxation; fostered strong colonial possession, trade, and naval strength; set up Council of Commerce which reduced tolls on bridges and roads, built canals, and regulated quality of manufactures in order to compete in world market; inland duties abolished, 1664; revocation of Edict of Nantes, 1685, sent Huguenots, most enterprising and industrious class, into exile where they developed competitive industries in other (protestant) countries. PORTUGAL. Maranhao Company gained trade monopoly, including exploitation of wood, mining of diamonds, Brazil, 1682; customs duties levied and royal tax, quinto (fifth) of, product of mining activity, paid; importation of woolen goods prohibited, 684. SPAIN. Population decreased and :omm.erce and agriculture lagged. ITALY. Population decreased from 12-13 million in 1600 to 11 million in 1700. ■





RELIGION Europe ENGLAND. Under Cromwell, Anglican clcrg)’ forbidden to teacli or preach, Catholic priests ordered out of kingdom, and censorship of press rigid; Cavalier Parliament issued Clarendon Code, 1661-65, including The corporation Act, 1661, Act of Uniformity, 1662, conventicle Act, 1664, Five-Mile Act, all statutes adopted to strengthen position of established Church; under James 11, declaration of Liberty of Conscience, 1687, granted liberty to all denominations. Fox, George. Founder of Society of Friends (Quakers); won many followers from Separatists; every man is enlightened by divine light of Christ,’ and inward light’ reveals God within man; prepared pattern of organization, 1668. Glanvifl, Joseph. 1636-80. Freethinker; Vanity of dogmatizing or Confidence of Opinions, 1661, earliest modern defense of open-mindedness and freedom of thought. Toland, John, 1670-1722. Deist; wrote christianity not Mysterious, 1696; God not necessarily mysterious and Scriptures not divine Locke suggested reasonableness of christianity’ in attempt to found rational religion; great contribution was toleration of every man’s belief in an age of prejudice and narrowness of view. Hobbes tried to explain all religion as evolution governed by natural laws; argued against miracles, future rew.ards and punishments, , and otlicr dogmas. ITALY. Innocent XI, Pope. outstanding leader who reorganized financial structure of papacy, refused to indulge in nepotism,.and financed Austrians in.campaign against Turks; with Louis XIV over state vs. diurclj supremaq’; protested expulsion of Huguenots. RUSSIA. Revision of the Church ritual and lituigical books in accordance with Greek practice undertaken by Nikon, patriarch, resulting in secession of Old Believers from Church.





77. Most important of purcell’s predecessors in music for English stage; wrote Psyche, 1675, The Tempest, 1673-74, adapted from shakespeare s plays. Lawes, Henry. 1595-1662. Composer; known for Comus, based on Milton’s masque; The Siege of Rhodes, rvritten by d’avenant, in which women appeared on the stage for the first time in England; last work often called first English opera. Humfrey, Pelham. 1647-74. Court composer; wrote music for shakespeare s The Tempest. THEATER Western Europe ENGLAND. Dryden, John. Poet, dramatist, critic; plays. Conquest of Granada, aureng-zebe, All for Love; not very successful in attempt to evolve ‘heroic’ drama at beginning of restoration period; turned to blank verse, classical form. Congreve, William. Great svriter of restoration comedy, including Way of the World, masterpiece. Love for Love, most popular play. Wycherley, Williom. cl640-17l6. Author, w itty, realistic, coarse satire and characteristic comedy of period. Elherege, Sir George. cl635-9I. Wrote Love in a Tub, comedy of manners, set tone for period which Congreve perfected. Cibber, Colley. 1671





Europe ENGLAND. Bangorian controversy in Churcli of England; George I postponed convocation, 1717, and great council inactive for about 135 years; argument between Hoadly, Bishop of Bangor. Wales, and other Church leaders, including William Law. Wesley, John. Founder of Methodism; started preaching salvation dirough faith in Christ alone, 1738; influenced by Moravians; repudiated Calvin, cl 740; issued deed of declaration by which Methodist societies became le^ly constituted, 1784; Methodist Episcopal Churcli later founded in America where he had preached; great evangelist, organizer., Whitefield,, George. calvinistic Methodist evangelist; associated with Wesley untiUl741; influential figure in ‘Great awakening’ in New England, having made seven trips to America, from 1738. Collins, Anthony.1676-1729. Deist; author of Discourse on Free Thinking, 1713, which caused controversy (satirized by J. Swift); set forth position of deists, defended cause of rational theology; Inquiry Concerning Human reedom, 1715, admirable statement 0 necessitarian viewpoint; influenced by Locke and Bayle. Tindal, Matthew. 1653-1733. Deist; ^ ^brty of conscience, and christianity as Old as the Creation, 1730, called ‘bible of deism.’ Warburton, William. 1698-1779. Bishop; The Divine Legation, of ]7H7 ^^sb^ foamed anti-deist polemic, Methodism. Wollaston, William. 1659-1724. Deist Phtlosopher; author of The Religion of Delineated, 1722. religion and to needs of man and.Society.. ^nniisards. Group of againtf ^ Cevennes who revolted against persecution. Holv of the Most orde^r (redemptorists) 1732,





MUSIC Europe GERMANY. Bach, Johann Sebastian. Supreme master composer, organist, contrapuntist; well-tempered Clavier, 1725, established scale system of most subsequent music; represented consummation of fugue form; prolific genius svho wrote church, vocal, instrumental music, including B Minor Mass, St. Matthew and St. John Passions, oratorios, sonatas, chorals, concertos, preludes, fugues, chamber and orcliestral music; though not recognized as pre-eminent composer for years, rescued from oblivion by later musicians, and now considered one of greatest creators in history of music. Handel, George Frederieh. germanenglish composer; dynamic master; famous virtuoso of organ; early operas successful, including first produced in London, Rinaldo, 1711; powerful influence on English music, living in England from 1712 until his death; attempted to introduce Italian opera into England, failed; masterpiece, Messiah, oratorio, presented in Dublin, 1742; prolific genius, many great Works. Hasse, Johann. Leading musician of Saxony; operas in Italian manner; with^ Graun, apostle of new musical era in Germany, leading to work of Gluck, Haydn, Mozart; wrote more than 60 operas; oratorios, church and instrumental music; influential. Graun, Karl Heinrich. Dominated opera in Berlin; Rodelinda, 1741, first Italian opera performed in that city.





ENGLAND. Cavendish, Henry. Chemist; first to recognize tme nature of hydrogen; discovered water results from union of hydrogen and oxygen; composition of nitric acid; anticipated researcli in electricity of Coulomb and Faraday; used ‘inch of electricity’ as unit of measurement; devised experiment for measuring density of the e-irdi, 1798. Hcrschel, Friedrich (Sir William). Astronomer; discovered planet Uranus, 1781; laid foundations of modern physical astronomy; determined a motion of the solar system as a whole toward a point in constellation Hercules; catalogued 800 double stars and more than 2,000 nebulae; founder of sidereal science. Black, Joseph. Scottish cliemist, physician; knotvn for theories of latent heat, specific heat; discovered fixed air’ (carbon dioxide). Hutton, James. Scottish geologist; fundamental idea that past can be explained by present; A Theory of Earth, 1785, turning point in geology. Priestley, Joseph. Chemist; father of pneumatic cliemistry; discovered ’dcpidogisticated air,’ later named oxygen by Lavoisier, 1774; discovered nitric oxide, and decomposition of ammonia by electricity, 1781. Romford, Count Benjamin Thompson. american-british scientist known for heat theory based on movement of particles; a founder. Royal Institute. Hunter, John. Scottish anatomist, surgeon; pioneer, comparative anatomy and morphology; introduced new surgical techniques, including ligature. Jenner, Edward. Physician; inoculation against smallpox; promoted new science of preventive medicine. Watt, James. 1736-1819. Scottish meclianical engineer, inventor; knoxvn for improvements on steam engine; invented modern condensing steam engine, 1765. Edwards, George. 1693-1773. Father of ornithology; History of Birds, 1743-51.





RELIGION Europe GERMANY. schleiermacher, Friedrich. philosopher, Protestant tlieologian, Moravian Church; author, Christian Dogma According to the fundamental Principles of the evangelical Church, 1821-22, an important theological work attempting to reconcile theories of modem society with religion. Baader, Franz. 1765-1841. philosopher and mystic: famed Roman Catliolic thinker. ENGLAND. Two-thirds of Welsh protestants seceded from Anglican Church, 1811. Bourne, Hugh. 1772-1852. Founder, Primitive Methodists, 1807; outdoor revival services; within his lifetime, 110,000 members. United States Carroll, John. Roman Catholic Jesuit; cleigyman; opponent of English control of Catholic Church in America; first archbishop of Baltimore; founded Catholic educational institutions, including Georgetown University. Cheverus, Jean. 1768-1836. French Roman Catholic clergyman; outstanding first bishop of Boston, 1810-23. Ballou, Hosea. 1771-1852. Foremost universalist leader; founder and editor, universalist Magazine, 1819. Albright, Jacob. 1759-1808. Founder, evangelical association, later evangelical Church, branch of Methodist; elected bishop at first annual conference, 1807. Campbell, Alexander. 1788-1866. Founder, Disciples of Christ, offshoot o Baptists, 1809, in Pennsylvania; periodical, Christian Baptist, 1826; now over 2 million members. Asia japan, kurozumi Munefado. Founder, Kurozumi sect, first of modem popular Shinto sects; patriotism stressed; large following.





Western Europe FRANCE. GerIcauU, Theodore. Foremost artist; helped usher in Romantic school of painting; famous for michelangelesque paintings, including Raft of the Medusa; paintings and drawings of horses; excellent draughtsman. David, Jacques. influential leader of neoclassical school; superb equestrian portraits of Napoleon; grandiose historical paintings including Coronation, 1805-08. Percier, Charles. Architect; with Fontaine, government architect under Napoleon; worked on Louvre, Tuileries Palace; designed Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel, and other works; complete interior decoration in comformity with Empire motif; great finese and elegance. Fontaine, Pierre. Architect; worked with Percier in developing Empire style in France; partnership dissolved after napoleon’s fall, 1814; court architect in succeeding reigns. Chaigrin, Jean. 1739-1811. Architect; designed Arc de Triomphe de I Etoile, commissioned by Napoleon, 1806. Vignon, Barthelemy. cl762-1828. Architect; converted Churcli of the Madeleine into Temple of Glory, for Napoleon. Charlet, Nicolas. 1792-1845. Painter, lithographer; famous for series of lithographs depicting Napoleonic wars. ENGLAND. The Elgin Marbles, ancient sculptures, were brought to England by Lord Elgin at the suggestion of John Flaxman, sculptor, and purchased by British Museum, 1816. Bonington, Richard. Excellent water-color artist; known for atmospheric sensitivity; studied with Gros, Paris; friend of Delacroix; link between Constable and Turner; brought work of French Romantics to attention of English artists. Fuseli, Henry (Johann Fussli). anglo-swiss artist known primarily for graphics; 800 drawings and sketches of exceptional excellence; illustrated shakespeare and Milton.





Central Europe GERMANY. Beethoven, Ludwig van. Supreme composer; studied witli Haydn; influenced by his predecessors, but created so much that was new and important that his is a unique place in musical history: developed sonata, made innovations in the orchestra, freed the variation from a rigid form tv’ith his vivid imagination; virtuoso of the piano; famous works include Pathetique sonata, ‘rasoumowsky’ quartets, nine symphones, Coriolamis overture, Fidelia, opera, chamber and instrumental music. Weber, Carl Maria von. Composer, pianist; laid foundation for German romantic opera; conductor; best known for Der freischiitz, 1821, Obcron, 1826, Euryanthe, 1823; mote instrumental music, including Invitation to the Dance, 1819, nine cantatas, four piano sonatas, eight sets of variations, two piano concertos, two symphonies, over one hundred songs, masses. concertstuck in F Minor, 1821, and many other works. AUSTRIA. Schubert, Franz. Foremost composer of romantic movement in Austria; svrote over 600 songs, reaching the heights in German Lied; brilliant symphonies, diamber music, incidental music for Rosamunde, cliurch music, piano sonatas; lived in poverty, died young.





THEATER Europe GERMANY. Schiller, Johann. Most famous as dramatist; last period, outstanding works, including Die Jungfrau von Orleans (The Maid of Orleans), 1801, Die Braut von Messina (The Fiancee from Messina), Wilhelm Tell, 1804; important influence. Kleist, Heinrich von. 1777-1811. Dramatist. poet, novelist; wrote strangely tormented, tense tragedies; patriotic dramas and comedies. HUNGARY. Kisfaludy, Charles. Dramatist; founder, Hungarian national drama; Tatars in Hungary, 1819, first genuinely dramatic Hungarian play and first of many successes by w hich he established the national theater. AUSTRIA. grillparzer, Franz. Dramatist; influenced Hauptmann, maeterlinck, and others: first to adapt new form to Austrian theater; Die Ahnfrau (The ancestress), 1817, Sappho, 1818, a trilogy Das Goldene Vliess (The Golden Fleece), 1821, and many others. FRANCE. Talma, Fransois. 17631826. Eminent actor; established theater first known as Theatre de la Republique; greatest tragedian of his time; made important reforms in costuming and technique. DENMARK. oehlenschlager, Adam. 1779-1850. Dramatist; pioneer of the romantic movement; influenced many playwrights. Asia JAPAN. Namboku Tsuroya IV. outstanding playtvright; prolific writer; known for famous ghost plays; many of his works still performed; wrote for famous actors, Matsumoto Koshiro IV, Onoe Matusuke, Onoe Kikugoro III; played leading role in Kabuki; called dai Namboku,’ the great Nambuko. Jisuke, Sakurada. 1734-1806, Poet; known for many plays with social background; dance numbers are still popular.





Western Europe FRANCE. Comte, Auguste. philosopher, founder of positivist school based on science; social reformer. Hugo, Victor. Leader of romantic school; Hunchback of Notre Dame, 1831; poetry. Stendhal (Marie Henri Beyle). Novelist; Red and the Black, 1830, charterhouse of Parma, 1839. Balzac, Honore de. La Comedie humanie, collection of work, including Eugenie Grandet, 1833, Le Pere Goriot, 1835, excellent characterization, vivid imagination: famous short stories. Dumas, Alexandre (pere). Novelist; dramatist; Three Musketeers, 1844, Count of Monte Cristo, 1844-45. Michelet, Jules. Great historian, romantic scltool; Histoire de France, 1833-67; medieval studies exceptional; biographies. toequeville, Alexis de. Liberal political thinker, author of famed Democracy in America (4 vols.) 1835-40. Others. Prosper M^rim^e, novelist; George Sand, novelist; Francois Guizot, historian; Alfred de Musset, poet; Alfred de Vigny, poet, novelist. ENGLAND. Thackeray, William. Novelist; Vanity Fair, Henry Esmond. Dickens, Charles. Realistic sentimental novels of London; prolific. Carlyle, Thomas. Scottish essayist, historian; French Revolution, 1837. Browning, Elizabeth Barrett. Romantic poet. Sonnets from Portuguese. Bronte, Charlotte and Emily. 181848. Novelist; former, Jane Eyre, 1847, latter, Wuthering Heights, 1848. Hallam, Henry. Whig historian; legal and institutional history; accuracy and use of original sources outstanding. bulwer-lytton, Edward. Novels. Landor, Walter S. 1775-1864. Writer of prose dialogues. Imaginary Conversations. ITALY. Manzoni, Alessandro. Chief figure in Italian literature; novels in Scott tradition; I promessi sposi. SPAIN. Espronceda, Jose de. Romantic poet, compared to Byron.





ITALY. Bellini, Vincenzo. Romantic composer of opera; known for opera in the grand manner with masterly melodic and dramatic effects; La Sonnambula (The sleepwalker), 1831, Norma, 1831, I Puritani (The Puritans), 1835; died very young. Donizetti, Gaetano. Composer of opera; influenced by Rossini; wrote great comic operas; most famous tvorks •included Lucia di Lammermoor, 1835, based on Scott’s novel; light opera. The Daughter of the Regiment, Paris, 1840; composed 65 operas, songs, cantatas, sacred works, and string quartets; very popular. Paganini, Niccolo. Notable violin virtuoso whose artistry has become a legend; use of harmonics extended range of instrument; able to play pizzicato and bow passages simultaneously; wrote 24 caprices for solo violin; subsequently transcribed for piano by Schumann and Liszt; Bralims and rachmaninoff wrote variations on one of them. Centrol ond Eastern Europe GERMANY. Schumann, Robert. outstanding romantic composer of nearly 150 songs to poems by Heine, Coethe, and otliers; symphonies, three string quartets, 1842, famed for quintet in E Flat Major (Opus 44), choral works, opera, music for piano; championed younger composers, including Brahms and Chopin; called most literary composer. mendelssohn, Felix. Notable romantic composer; intellectual approach in unsuccessful attempt to reconcile classical construction with romantic content; known for Violin Concerto in E Minor, Hebrides Overture, Songs Without Words, music for piano, chamber music; important in reawakening interest in Bach with performance of St. Matthew Passion, 1829. RUSSIA. Glinka, Michael. Composer; founder of the nationalist sdiool and Russian opera; famed operas, A Life for the Tsar, 1836, Russian and Ludmilla, 1842, based on native folk music; called ‘prophet-patri





1859; piedmont-sardinia and France defeated Austria Papal states, including Rome, absorbed by Kingdom of Italy





Eastern Europe RUSSIA. Nicholas I (1825-55) p: posed a division of the Ottoman lar ( We have a sick man on our hands When Russian troops entered Mole via and Wallachia, the Turks declar war (1853). Britain and France si ported them (1854), landing an ditionary force in the Crimean peni sula (siege of Sevastopol). When Ai tria threatened to join the allies Ri sia yielded. The Congress of i (1856) neutralized the Black Sea ai restored Moldavia and Wallachia Turkey as autonomous principaliti It also drafted a ‘declaration’ for protection of neutrals and neutr property in wartime. Another i> l‘i consequence of the war was the Inu national Red Cross and the Ge Convention (1864). Though checked in the west made territorial gains elsewhere. Ti kestan, including the ancient ra a, cities, Bokhara, Tashkent, and kand, was annexed between 1859 ar 1865. In the Far East the Amur ■ ■ trict and the coast of the Sea of to the Korean border were taken > 1858 (vladivostok founded, 1861 Russia also took the island of 1853-75. In 1861 Alexander II, the liberator’ (1855-81) issued an edict emancipation freeing the Russian They were promised allotments land from the estates of the nob owners, but were to repay the tj ment for the reimbursement it ^ ■ ■ their former masters. Alexander sought to improve the Russian the law courts, and the schools granted assemblies (zemstvos) as rep sentative organs for local self-g ‘v ment. But when the Poles rel I (1863) he repressed them with o^v. and curtailed their liberties.





Western Europe FRANCE. Liszt, Franz. Piano virtuoso, composer; famed for freedom of construction, elaboration on motif creating free form; seen first in Faust Symphony, 1855; Les Preludes, 1856, introduced the symphonic poem. Gounod, Charles. Opera composer; known for Faust, 1859, Romeo and Juliet, 1867; outstanding oratorios. Bizet, Georges. 1838-75. Compbser of one of the most popular of all operas, Carmen, 1875; symphonies, l‘arlesienne Suites, 1872, Souvenir de Rome, 1866-68; vocal music. Offenbach, Jacques. 1819-80. Creator of French operetta; composed more than 100 successful works in this form, including Orphee aux Enfers, 1858, La Vie Parisienne, 1866; masterpiece, Tales of Hoffmann, serious opera, produced 1881. Thomas, Charles Ambroise. 181196. Noted composer of opera Mignon, 1866, based on work by Goethe, written for Op6ra Comique; Hamlet, 1868, grand opera adapted from Shakespeare; last work, Frangoise de Rimini, 1882; •wrote ballet, cantatas, vocal, instrumental music. ITALY. Verdi, Giuseppi. Master of Italian opera; link between Rossini and Wagner; contributed power, passion, and dramatic intensity to opera in early works, Rigoletto, 1851, II Trovatore. La Traviata, 1853; wrote Requiem for Mazzini, 1874. United States Foster, Stephen C. Song rvritcr, composer; known for sentimental minstrel type songs tliat have had lasting popularity as folk music.





1931. Library pioneer; originator of Dewey decimal system; established first school for training librarians, at Columbia College. Washington, Booker T. Famed educator; organizer of Tuskegee Institute, a school for Negroes in Alabama; expanded, developed the institution; lectured ■widely; author of many books. General. polytechnic at Washington University, St, Louis, 1880, forerunner of manual training high schools; many others followed, including The New York Trade School, 1881, for building trades. Tuskegee Institute for Negroes founded, 1881, as normal school; called Normal and Industrial Institute, 1893-1937. Free kindergarten, 1878, and Visiting Guild for Education of Crippled Children, 1892, founded by Felix -Adler and Ethical Culture Society.





KUSIC Central and Eastern Europe GERMANY. Brahms, Johannes. Great master composer; romantic neoclassicist; though not an innovator, he Gcated outstanding avorks, including four s)mphonies, chamber music, dionl works culminating in die German Requiem, instrumental music, works for the piano, sonatas; master of the lied; overtures, concertos. Strauss, Richard. Master composer; symphonic or tone poems, Don Jnan, ISSS, Death and transfiguration, 1889, Till euknspiegcts Merry Pranks, 189-1-95, Thus Spake zarathustra, 1S94-95, £in heldenleben (A Hero’s Life) 1899; influenced by Liszt, Wagner; free use of dissonance influenced 20th century composers. Bulow, Hans von, 1830-94. Pianist, composer; one of first piano virtuosi to play Bach. ’ AUSTRIA. Bruckner, Anton. 182496. Religious composer of sacred and secular works of monumental, yet mannenst, style; symphonies. Wolf, Hugo. 1860-1903. Famed fomposer of over 300 lieder. RUSSIA. tchaikovsky, . Peter. Popuw romposer of romantic, sentimental usic, symphonies, concertos, music A opera, ballet; SymRomeo and Juliet, Beauty, Swan Lake. 1 Rims^-Korsokov, Nicolai. 1844en rl °pera, Snow Maid°^«tm,bllll° ‘ 5c/re/mreznde, for 1833-87. NaiurbS1^^^‘onal 692 Fin! poems, En Saga, ! > ■ piano. ^ <^aniber music; works Smefanoi Friedof a national IStLtT^ lolk songs; The ^^“Snition World Sym





Wesiern Europe FRANCE. Franck, C^sar. belgianfrench composer, organist; influenced by Bach; developed instrumental music; known for Symphony in D Minor, 1886-88; outstanding work in late years, including symphonic poems, oratorios, operas, chamber music, w’orks for organ and piano. saint-saens, Charles. Neoclassicist; known for opera, Samson and Delilah, 1877, Third Symphony, piano concertos, symphonic poems. Faure, Gabriel. 1845-1924. songivriter of exceptional lyrical quality; masterpiece. Requiem, 1887. d lndy, Vincent. 1851-1931. Important teacher; member, Franck group; Symphony on a French Mountain Air, for piano and orchestra. Lalo, Victor. 1823-92. Rich, skillful orchestrations; Symphonic Espagnole, for violin and orchestra; popular. Dukas, Paul. 1865-1935. Bridge between romanticism and impressionism; The sorcerer’s Apprentice, 1897. Others. Delibes, Massenet, Chabrier. ITALY. Verdi, Giuseppe. culmination of Italian opera in last great works, Aida, 1871, Otello, 1887, Falstaff, 1893. ENGLAND. Sullivan, Sir Arthur. Composed serious oratorios; song. The Lost Chord; hymn. Onward Christian Soldiers, as well as light operas with libretti by Gilbert for which he is best known. Grove, Sir George. 1820-1900. Musicologist; famed for Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 1879-89, standard reference work. Americas UNITED STATES. MacDowell, Edward. Studied in Paris and Germany; program music, piano sonatas, concertos; Woodland Sketches, Tragica, Eroica; Indian Suite for orchestra. Parker, Horatio. 1863-1919. Church music best of period; oratorios. BRAZIL. Gomes, Antonio. Used native Brazilian themes; wrote opera and orchestral music;, influenced by Verdi.





ECONOMY Western Europe ENGLAND. In 1914 Britain remained a leading exporter, possessing almost one-half the mercantile ocean tonnage of the world and serving not only Britain, but other nations; expansion of the factory system and phenomenal growth of manufacturing cities caused a decline in agricultural production, forcing England to import tremendous quantities of food; britain’s dependence on foreign trade made her vulnerable; with increased social and labor legislation, including Old-Age Pension Law, 1909, Minimum Wage Law, 1911-12, Federal Income Tax, 1913, Emergency Empldyment Act, 1921, etc., one-sixth of britain’s population was aided by government, resulting in an unbalanced budget; following war, Britain gained control of German underseas cables and became the chief center of world communications; economic problems of great magnitude resulted from the cost of war and declining world trade. FRANCE. well-developed industries and agricultural wealth made France the fourth ranking nation in world trade, third in textile output and in iron production; epidemic of labor trouble, including railway strike, 1910, and strike of vineyard workers, 1911, created additional tension; war damage and cost of reconstruction created economic crisis and the equivalent of national bankruptcy by 1926. ITALY. General strikes, 1904, discontent with trade imbalance, lack of raw materials for industrial expansion, low wages, poverty, lack of social legislation, caused general, strike against war taxation, and led to acceptance of fascist solutions. General. An outstanding cliaracter. istic of modern industry has been tendency toward concentration and localization, as seen in world’s iron and steel industry s location in Ger. many’s Ruhr Basin and Silesia, england’s Sheffield and Birmingham, and Pittsburgh, Gary, and Birmingham in the United States., 112





Flexner, Abraham. 1866Educator whose report for Carnegie Foundation, 1910, Medical Education in the United States and Canada, hastened much-needed reforms in standards, organization, and curricula of American medical schools; director. Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, 1930-39; important %vorks. Dillard, James H. contributed much to improvement of Negro education and interracial relations; Dillard University, New Orleans, named lor him. Hall, Edwin. 1855-1938. Physicist; wrote textbooks and manuals which organized teaching of secondary school physics. Adler, Cyrus. 1863-1940. Scholar, editor; librarian, smithsonian Institution; founder, American Jewish Historical Society, editor, Jewish Encyclopedia. Berry, Martha MeChesney, 18661942. Opened schools for underprivileged mountain children of Georgia. Asio CHINA. New system of education adopted, 1905; modeled on Western systems; Medical School founded, Peking, 1906; thousands of temples converted for use as schools; 1,100 graduates of Tsing Hua College sent to United States for advanced study, 1911-27, and many other students sent to study in Japan and Europe; by 1910, over 200 daily, weekly, or monthly journals (including Peking Gazelle, world’s oldest newspaper) were exerting considerable influence on public opinion. JAPAN. By 1905, 94.93 per cent of eligible boys and girls attended elementary schools; in 1909 there were 18,160 common elementary schools and 9,105 with additional special training; two imperial universities at Tokyo Kyoto; at Tokyo in 1909 there were 2.880 students and six colleges of law, medicine, engineering, literature, science, and agricultural; postgraduate courses, a quarterly journal published, and scientific research carried on; public education secular, no religious training permitted in schools; Imperial Library, by 1909, had over half a mil





MUSIC Western Europe FRANCE. Debussy, Claude. Foremost impressionist composer; although first important compositions date from tlie 1890’s, his work and influence belong to the modern scliool of the 20th century; influenced by the impressionist artists, who allowed the eye to blend the separate elements of color, so that in music Debussy allowed the ear to bridge the silences and harmonize the chords to create ‘impressions or picture images; famous for Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun, 1892, Nocturnes, 1898, Le Mer, 1905; only string quartet, 1893, opera. Pelleas et Melisande, 1892-1902. Ravel, Maurice. Postimpressionist; polytonality; subtle, restrained music; excelled at orchestration; famed for music for piano, including Pavane pour line Infante Defunte, 1899, and ballet, Daphnis and Chloe, 1912. Honegger, Arthur. 1897-1955. swissfrench composer; member of Les Six; music ranges from satire to intensely religious, marked by incisive rhythms, sharp dissonances, use of polytonality; wote Pacific 231, 1923; ballet, Judith, 1925; chamber music. Satie, Erik. 1866-1925. Leader, Les Six; humorous satire in music. ITALY. Puccini, Giacomo. Famed composer of opera; romantic realist; Madame Butterfly, La Boheme, La Tosca. Respighi, Ottorino. 1879-1936. Romantic symphonic poems. The Fountains of Rome, The Pines of Rome. SPAIN. Falla, Manuel de. Romantic impressionist; Nights in the Garens of Spain; ballet, three-cornered





THEATRE Europe ENGLAND. Shaw, George Bernard. irish-english social satirist; as critic, championed Ibsen; outstanding author of famous plays, including Caesar and Cleopatra, 1899, Man and Superman, 1903, Major Barbara, 1907, Pygmalion and Androcles and the Lion, 1912, Saint Joan, 1923. IRELAND. Synge, John. Poet, dramatist; influenced by Yeats with whom Synge and Lady Gregory founded and directed famed Abbey Theater, Dublin, from 1904; interpreter of peasant life; In the Shadow of the Glen, comedy, and Riders to the Sea, tragedy, 1905, Playboy of the Western World, bitter comedy, 1907. RUSSIA. Chekhov, Anton. outstanding dramatist; powerful realism; bestknown works include Sea Gull, 1896, Uncle Vanya, 1897, Three Sisters, 1901, Cherry Orchard, 1903. Gorki, Maxim. (Alexei Peshkov) •Tragic realist; The Lower Depths, 1902, The Smug Citizen, 1901, The Old Man, 1915 (translated as The Judge). ITALY. Pirandello, Luigi. 1867-1936. Important figure in contemporary Italian literature; author of 50 plays, including Six Characters in Search of an Author, 1921. CZECHOSLOVAKIA. Capek, Karel. 1890-1938. Famed, R.U.R., satire using ‘robot.’ SWEDEN. Strindberg, August. 18491912. Important dramatist; mystical, tragic, morbid, iconoclastic themes and atmosphere; split personality reflected in works; Toward Damascus. BELGIUM. maeterlinck, Maurice. 1862-1949. Symbolist; great work, The Blue Bird, 1909. HUNGARY. Molnar, Ferenc. 18781952. Liliom, The Swan, The Guardsman; popular success in United States. SPAIN. Benavente, Jacinto. 1866Prolific dramatist; social satire, excellent characterization. Martinez Sierra, Gregorio. 18811947. masterpiece, Cancion de Cuna (The Cradle Song) 1911, very popular. AUSTRIA. Schnitzler, Arthur. 1862.»JJ9.3.1.^,Succe,5sfnl,^One.-art„nla,v,«





Asia JAPAN. During occupation by U. S. troops, attempts were made to ‘democratize’ Japan; control was established over industry, banking, mining, and other economic activities to insure a more equitable distribution of opportunity; ownership of land was increased through redistribution; food was imported for the rapidly increasing population (exceeded 90 million by 1959); by 1953, industrial and agricultural production in Japan had been restored to postwar levels; the economic health of the country depended on world trade, and to balance imports it was necessary to increase exportation of manufactured goods; by 1957, Japan became the leading shipbuilding country in the world; problems of foreign exchange resources caused a ‘tight money’ policy and, though business prospered, the future depended on new or enlarged markets for Japan’s increased production. CHINA. With a population believed to exceed 600 million, China’s main problem is food production; primarily an agrarian nation, 92 per cent of the country’s farmers are part of collective and cooperative farms which have not proven as successful as planned; industrial production increased 120 per cent in value from 1952 to 1957 under government control. INDIA. Following independence, attempts were made to alleviate the grinding poverty of the Inajority of a population approaching 400 million, also to industrialize the country, build more power plants and railroads, institute new methods of agriculture and irrigation, including the building of the great Bhakra Dam near New Delhi. The same problems affected the 85 million people of Pakistan. Africa exploitation of the great natural resources of Africa continued, ^ oil ex ploration being carried out in hot i East and West Africa; France succeeded in finding oil in the Sahara, a hydroelectric power plant planned m Congo; bauxite; French Guinea.





theories on the nature of the universe propounded, including those of Hoyle, England, and Shapley, United States; improved stellar photography, radio telescopy, spectrum analysis, and building of great 200-incli telescope, Mt. Palomar, California, have aided research; planet Pluto discovered, 1930. General. Important work on control of weatlter; attempts to find solution to Asorld water problems; new instruments in this ‘age of me^ianics’ included gyropilots, electron microscopes, electronic calculating machines, etc; work in agronomy, -genetics, syn^^ ^ ^ stry, and pest control to tu a^culture; attempts to ‘shoot the moon’ with rockets, 1958.





RELIGION Historian Arnold Toynbee has suggested the need for a world-wide religion and undemanding among, all men of all faiths. A trend tosvard the formation of federations or unions witliin the protestant group is seen in the founding of United Church of Canada. 1925: Reformed Church of France, 1938: Church of Christ in Japan (IS denominations merged), 1911; Church of Soutli India. 1947; fvangelical Church in Germany (27 independent regional churches confederated), 1948; and Council of Liberal Churches, 1953. United States GroAvth of evangelical movements; le.iding theologians include Niebuhr, 1 jilieh, tvho espouse a neo-ortliodoxy within Protestantism; Buchman, Oxford Group, founded Moral Rearmament Program; popular writers, speakers, including Bishop Fulton J. Sheen, ■Billy Graham, Norman Vincent Peale. Asia PHIUPPINFS. Aglipay, Gregorio. Founded ^ Philippine independent ChurA; bishop; over one million followers; retained some elements of catliolicism, later established friendly relations with Unitarians. INDO-CHINA. Coo-Doism. Religious and ethical movement organized unleadership of le-van-trung, • •6, Annamese group originated on island. 1919; headquarters at Saigon; attempt to rccondle AVestern and Eastern ideas.





Asia INDIA. The main problem is one of raising tlie literacy rate of the general population; in 1941 it was estimated that about 12 per cent of the people could read: in a reorganization of the educational system, greater emphasis has been placed on primary education, svith costs shifted to private groups and local governments; at the university level, however, the central government has extended its control in order to maintain high standards: an attempt has been made to unify the language; a department of education has been established in the provinces as well as in the central government; teclinical training receiving greater emphasis. PAKISTAN. After partition, 1956, a conference tvas called to create a system of education whidi could cover the entire country and attempt to make literacy universal within 20 years; Urdu was to be the compulsory national langu.ige in tlie 6th year; othenvise, local languages could be spoken; religious education made compulsory for all Moslems in all schools. Middle East TURKEY. Law in 1928 replaced Turkish alphabet with Latin alphabet, and ■whole nation was obliged to learn it; all books, magazines were reset in new type; compulsory education instituted, 1931; metric system introduced. international or Universal Languages. Latin was used.as the international language of scholarship until the close of the Middle Ages. Frendi has been used as tlie language of diplomacy, and English has become popular as the language of trade and commerce. Attempts have been made to establish an anificial, auxiliary language for universal use; diaracterized by phonetic spelling, simplicity, and regularity of syntax and form, over 100 sudi languages have been dewed, including Volapiik, Esperanto, interlingua, Ido, nov-esperanto Occidental, Arulo, Ro, and, most successful in recent years, Basic English, developed in the 1930 s, using 850 basic English words.





currents of rhythm. Strongly influenced by tlie Negro, jazz first appeared as ragtime, followed by various styles and interpretations including ‘blues,’ New Orleans, Dixieland, ‘Chicago style,’ ‘hot jazz’ played by great bands, ‘combos’ of performers who improvised as tliey played, ‘swing,’ and ‘rock-androll.’ Gershwin, George. Composer; musical comedies, popular sorrgs; important contribution in large works including Rhapsody in Blue, 1924, classic example of symphonic jazz; Porgy and Bess, 1935, folk opera; Con certo in F, 1925, and American in Paris, 1928. Copland, Aaron. 1900Known for ballets, Rodeo, 1941, Billy the Kid, 1938, appalachian Spring, 1944; film music. Menotti, Gian-Carlo. 1911