curates: Dictionary Information

Curate n. Assistant to a parish priest. [medieval latin curatus: related to -cure]

curates: Geographic Locations

679945 Curăţele Curatele Curatele,Curăţele 46.7 22.41667 P PPLA2 RO 05 28941 2670 242 Europe/Bucharest 2012-06-12

curates: Historical Excerpts

Greece Archimedes of Syracuse. Foremost physicist, mathematician; one of most aeative hellenistic thinkers; outstanding work in physics, static mechanics, hydrostatics; fundamental principles of equilibrium of weights; principles of lever; invented compound pulley, invaluable endless screw; discovered relative density of substances suspended in liquids (principle of specific pavity); in mathematics, determined value of IT (pi); worked on circle measurement, relations of sphere and cylinder, and mutual projections. Euclid. Leading mathematician, physicist; trained at Plato’s Academy; The, Elements (13 vols.) first integrated treatise on geometry; standard text for teaching elementary geometry; deductive method; laid foundation for scientific study of optics. Eratosthenes. alexandrian astronomer, geographer, geometer; referred to as founder of astronomical geography and scientific chronology’; made first relatively accurate measurement of circumference and diameter of earth. aristarchus of Samos. Astronomer, mathematician; first to advance heliocentric theory of universe and rotation ot earth on its axis; deduced that sun was arger than earth; theories not accepted, except by Seleucus (150 eg), Copernicus; improved sun dial; trigonometrical ratios. ■ ^“™nomer; elaborated VP theory of universe, leading view through Middle Ages; more ac from tion of t ’ accurate determinalogue of longitude; catanometry. disease “ observer; explained healW causes,and ■hippocratic oSi; sidan-% ’ /^ loodieea. c50bc. PhyHeved Sth condition of body^





Herodotus. Historian; monumental History covered civilization of Greece, rise of Persia, and Persian Wars; Greek victory explained in terms of divine and essential nature of things; a charming, informative, though often inaccurate, story-teller; important as ‘father of history.’ Thucydides. Historian; author of History of peloponnesian War; service as naval commander in war increased authenticity of work; attempted to establish ‘science’ of history through elimination of moral and supernatural reference, and by emphasis on objective analysis of ‘cause’ and event; considered superior to Herodotus in conveying tragedy of inevitable decline and downfall of Greeks; outstanding historian of antiquity. Polybius. Historian; last of great Greek historians; lived in Rome; History, masterpiece, traced rise of Rome to power, 22I-H6; based on painstaking research and sympathetic observation; style dull, inferior to Thucydides; invaluable source. Xenophon. Historian; soldier, friend of Socrates; famous for Anabasis; described retreat of 10,000 Greek mercenaries who had served in Asia under Cyrus, Persian prince; highlevel war memoirs, but lacking scholarship and critical analysis; life of Agesilaus, excellent biography. Pindar. Greatest lyric poet of period; choral lyric set standard for triumphal ode or epinikion honoring victories at pan-hellenic games; religious; brilliant, powerful, intricate harmonies, pictorial imagery; unusual originality; influential. Theocritus. Poet; first of pastoral poets; originated conventions of this genre; profound understanding of rural life; expressive verse extolling nature. Demosthenes. Statesman, greatest Greek orator; famed speeches in superb prose style; Philippics, attack on Philip of Macedon; Olynthiacs, urged Athens to aid the Olyntliians.





The Mayan civilization of America produced a remarkably accurate calendar, invented signs for zero, and discovered the prindple of position in the wriUng of numbers centuries before these ideas, fundamental to higher mathematics, were known in the Western world. In India, invaluable contributions were made to the science of mathematics by Aryabhata, and Charaka wrote an outstanding medical encyclopedia. Paper was invented in China in 105 AD by Ts oi Lun. technological advances made by the engineers and architects of jhe Roman Empire outweighed their scientific innovations. Ptolemy proposed the geocentric theory of the universe accepted by the Western world for centuries.





America MAYA. Calendars. Two Mayan calendars: haab, 365-day year, recurred in 52-year cydes; tzolkin, sacred or ceremonial year, 260 days, 13 months, 20 days; corrected calendar, 18 ihontlis, 20 days, one month o£ 5 days; considered more accurate than Gregorian, Mathematics. Developed accurate time computation based on vigesimal ratlier than decimal system; no fractions; used bars and dots; bar equal to 5, dot, 1; pictures or glyphs for names. Asia CHINA. Ts ai Iwn. Eunuch at Han court; produced paper made of vegetable fibers:bark, hemp, rags, fish nets; paper rolls largely replaced bamboo and silk as writing material; Sun Tsu. Mathematician; author, Suan-shing (arithmetical Classic); employed decimal system of numeration; no zero. Chang Heng. outstanding astronomer; listed stars; corrected calendar; fixed value of pi as square root of 10; rediscovered use of magnetic needle; invented seismograph, 132 ad., Uu Hui. Mathematician; discussed methods of measuring magnitudes; inferred knowledge of algebraic procedure. Tsu Ch ung-chih. Mathematician; correctly calculated pi. Chang Chung-ching. ‘Sage of medicine’; known for treatise on typhoid.fever. Hua T o. Famed early surgeon; credited with knowledge of anesthetics and many kinds of operations. INDIA. Aryabhata. Mathematician; synthesized developments in numbers, notation; used system of. place notation based on 10; employed.Greek methods for computing volumes of pyramids and cones; gave pi value of 3.1416; table of sines; correct. formula for area of circle, triangle, trapezium; executed, quadratic equa-, tions;^ excellent work in astronomy; explained, eclipses, equinoxes; developed epicycle theory similar to Ptol■ emy’s.





al-Khworizmi. Foremost matliematidan of Islam; fused knowledge of Greek and Hindu arithmetic, algebra, trigononietr)’: author of first modern arithmetic textbook; introduced ‘arabic’ numerals and symbol for zero; important contributions to astronomy; aided accurate measurement of length of terrestrial degree, circumference of earth; computed astronomical tables. ibn-Yunus, Ali. outstanding Egyptian astronomer; Hakemite tables; valuable work in trigonometry. al-Bailani. Famed astronomer, matliematician; star catalogues; revised work on Ptolemy; work in trigonometry on sines, tangents, and cotangents. al-Razi (Rhazes) Physician, cliemist, physicist; compiled medioil encyclopedia, later used in Western Europe; as resident physician, state hospital, Baghdad, established courses in medicine, pharmacy; clinic for poor earned name ‘greatest medieval clinician; devised elaborate chemical apparatus; cl.assified chemical substances. Jobir ibn-Haiyan (Geber) Most famous Arab alchemist; sulphur-mercuiy theory of metals; prepared arsenic, lead carbonate, acids; treatises ^nslated into Latin; influenced hristian scliolars, possibly Roger





Islamic science and Asian technology continued to dominate the medieval period. Moslem physicians were well in advance of those of, the West. The Canon, medical encyclopedia compiled by Avicenna, served as the standard text for centuries. The Moslems improved instruments and accurate charts and China s invention of the magnetic compass were invaluabie contributions to navigation and paved the way for later explorations. experimental science in Christian Europe was hampered by established belief in other-worldliness, while uncritical dependence on classical authority, miracles, the supernatural, and deductive thought delayed experimentation and inductive analysis.





Middle East al-Biruni. Great Moslem mathematician, astronomer, geographer, encyclopedist; profound, original thinker; astronomical encyclopedia, cl013; with Omar Khayyam, improved calendar and historical chronology: made studies of lever, pulley, specific gravity, triangle of forces; Biruni first medieval scholar to measure latitude and longitude accurately: explained geographical phenomena according to laws of mathematics and physics; discussed earth’s rotation on its axis; extremely influential. Avicenna (ibn-Sina). outstanding philosopher-scientist, mathematician, physician, astronomer, physicist; compiled The Canon, medical encyclopedia, based on works of Galen, hippocrates, and Moslem doctors; translated by Gerard of Cremona; adopted by European schools as standard text. al-Hazen (ibn-al-Haitham). Foremost Moslem physicist; mathematician, astronomer; famed for work in optics; studied Euclid and Ptolemy but went far beyond them; worked with spherical and parabolic mirrors; extended knowledge of lenses; translation of al-Hazen s works aided Bacon; observations in astronomy advanced sdence of navigation and map-making; developed nautical almanacs: improved quadrant, dials,, globes. Omar Khayyam. Persian mathematician, astronomer, poet; reformed calendar; author of important treatise on algebra; included classification of equations; considered a leading scientist of age. Idrisi (Abu Abdullah Muhammed) outstanding medieval geographer; traveled extensively; compiled description of inhabited world’ based on own observation; constructed silver celestial globe; divided earth into 7 parallel climate zones; one of first to realize significance of earth as sphere. al-Kafhi. Author of Essence of the Art and Aid to Workers, Ids !, compilation of available knowledge of alchemy.





The great masters of the renaissance, influenced by the new scientific owcueness the period, created linear perspective and experimented with pyramidal construction, as a medium, and light from a single soiuce. Interested in visual realism, they a more faithful representation of nature based on detailed and accurate ■ ■. Though the majority of the works of art were religious, portraiture of a secular : gained prominence. The French town of lamoges became the center of the enamel ■ ■.. In Persia the magnificent Blue Mosque of Tabriz was built of blue tile. In China, Tai n; founded the Chekiang School, while great Japanese masters created works of; ■; : beauty.





ENGIAND. Harvey, William. ologist; lamed author of On Ch, I ou oj the Heart and the i 1028; demonstrated function of as muscular pump and complei adatory system except for capi idi, lacking sufficiently pos microscope, he did not find; di • between arterie tins, important in interpretati Wn facts drawn from comme penence; wrote The Generaii, 7 ’ ’651, studies in embry estim-,!^ transit of \ mo^ f ■Pote accurately, 1639





FRANCE. Fermat, Pierre de. Mathematician; founder, modern theory of numbers and calculus of probabilities; shared in invention of new analytic geometry; isagoge, 1679, recognized a principle in optics known as Fermat s Law. Picard, Jean. Astronomer; first to apply telescope to measurement of angles; accurate measure of a degree of the meridian; established figures in longitude and latitude important to Newton in calculations of gravitation; helped found Paris Observatory; connaissance des Temps, 1679-83 (5 vols.). Roberval, Gilles de. Mathematidan; originated method for constructing tangents and determining area of cycloid; invented balance. Cassini, Giovanni (Jacques). Astronomer; discovered four satellites of Saturn, described rings; determined rotation of Mars; aided in solar parallax determination; daimed systematic observation of zodiacal light. Delisle, Guillaume. Geographer, cartographer; important world map, eliminating error of Ptolemy; important in modern cartography. ITALY. Malpighi, Marcello. Anatomist, pioneer in use of microscope; valuable observations on structure of plants and animals; proved Harvey’s theory of blood circulation, obsendng in addition the movement of blood through capillaries; recorded structure of lung in De pnlmonibus, 1661; Viscera, 1666, details of other organs; Anatome plantarum, 1675-79, structure of flowering plants; treatise on silkworm considered first monograph on invertebrate; first description of development of seed and embryo; considered a founder of animal and plant histology. Borellt, Giovanni. Physicist, astronomer; first to point out parabolic paths of come«; considered real founder of biophysics; chief interest, animal motion, laying groundwork for muscular, meclianics. Redi, Francesco. Naturalist; pioneer in experimental entomology; attacked theory of spontaneous generation, 1668.





By the 18th century Europe had become the prosperous center of a world-wide seaborne commerce. Ocean travel grew swifter, safer, and pleasanter with improvements in navigation and ship design. A fair passage from Bristol to Boston or Baltimore took about five weeks; a voyage to India and the East Indies might take as many months. More accurate chronometers simplified the calculation of longitude and with each decade knowledge of prevailing winds and ocean currents increased. Extended voyages by resolute explorers (Tasman, Dampier, de Torres, bougainville, Cook, La P^rouse, and others) gradually filled In the blank spaces on the map. The virtual monopoly the Europeans maintained on intercontinental shipping gave tliem two critical advantages. Europe could not be attacked by the peoples of other continents and could trade with all of them. These advantages help to explain why, between 1500 and 1800, the population of Europe rose twice as fast as the world average, despite the fact that during these three centuries some 5 million Europeans emigrated as colonists. In an age of wooden ships sea power depended on forests. Land clearing, smelting, fuel consumption, houses, and ships had depleted the forests of Western Europe, making the timber of scandinavia and America essential. By 1776 one-third of the ships that flew the British ensign had been built in American shipyards. Most Europeans remained unaware of or indifferent to the debts Europe owed its dominions overseas. They thought of colonies as dependencies, to be governed, supplied and protected. Yet without colonial trade Europe would have advanced much more slowly. The most lucrative form of commerce the maritime nations of Europe developed





Central Europe GERMANY. Helmholtz, Hermann. Versatile scientist; extended application of law of conservation of energy, and formulated it mathematically, 1847; henceforth, energyconsidered constant and indestructible; thermodynamics and electrodynamics; pioneer in physiological optics. Ohm, Georg. Physicist; established quantitative relation between electric current and electromotive force in same conductor, 1827: ohm, practical unit of electrical resistance. Schleiden, Matthias. Botanist; pioneer in development of cell theory; photogenesis, plant tissues composed of cells, 1838; importance of nucleus. Muller, Johannes. Founder of scliool of mechanistic physiology; study of nert ous system; founder of scientific medicine in Germany; law of specific nerve energies,’ 1826. Hofmeister, Wilhelm. 1824-77. Botanist: demonstrated alternation of generations in flowering plants. Virchow, Rudolph. 1821-1902. Pathologist; founder of cellular pathology; versatile. AUSTRIA. Doppler, Christian. 180353. mathematician, physicist; Doppler s principle, measuring motion of stars, important in astronomy; formulated, 1842. BELGIUM. Quetelet, Adolphe. statistician, astronomer; one of first to apply mathematical statistics to social study of man (sociology): most important work, A Treatise on Man, 1835. DENMARK. Steenstrup, Johann. ardiaelogist, geologist; important work. On the alternation of generations, 1841. SWEDEN. Berzelius Jons. Chemist; developed modern system of lettersymbols, formulas in chemistry; analyzed numerous chemical compounds; recognized effect named catalysis; prepared highly accurate table of atomic weights. SWITZERLAND. Naegeli, Karl. 181791. Botanist, Memoir on the Nuclei, 1844^6, studies of cells, making distinction between nuclear material and protoplasm.