could: Dictionary Information

Could past of -can1. —v. Colloq. Feel inclined to (i could murder him).

could: Geographic Locations

could: Historical Excerpts

wandered about Asia, Africa, and been underrated; that they learned to Europe (all of which are connected take advantage ol prevailing winds by land) for half-a-million years or and currents and made long ocean more is easier to credit than that they voyages of which no record exists. The could have crossed the oceans. austrarapid progress of archeological studies lia may have been peopled even later will modify some current theories. But than the Americas; New Zealand and it appears improbable that man’s bridle islands of the Pacific later still. gin in tlie Old World and his ■ comIt is possible diat the maritime ‘ skill paratively recent arrival in the New





Ionian Science MILESIAN SCHOOL. Thales. First Greek mathematician and astronomer; journeyed to Egypt; learned geometry and Babylonian astronomy; attempted to devise method of scientific investigation; assumed unified character of all things, with water basic element of all matter; nature could be understood by reason; discovered how to calculate distance of ship at sea from observations taken from two points on land; estimated height of pyramid from length of its shadow. Anaximander. Philosopher-scientist; posited principles of natural law; anticipated evolutionary theories; suggested man adapted to environment; law of eternal motion; believed first to make a map; deduced moon shone by reflected light. Anaximenes. Philosopher-scientist; last of Milesian school; air basic substance of universe; believed earth shaped like round table or flat disc floating encompassed by air; influenced Pythagoras. Pylhagoras. Great mathematician; postulated number as essence of all things; founder of pythagorean school. Pythagoreans. Believed center of universe great ball of fire; earth, planets revolved about fixed point; credited with laying groundwork for Euclidian geometry; defined fundamental postulates and theorems; founded theoretical medicine.





riRST civilized states were relasmall in area, being in fact city which controlled adjacent vilAs most of them developed in river valleys the stream itself proa link whereby the ruler of a city extend his power over his neighireating a league of cities or a;ic empire. Early governments in collective tasks too vast or exe for limited local resources, irrigation projects, the storing of s crops against a time of famine, le erection of the Pyramids and reat Wall of China are examples h imperial undertakings.; limits to which an empire could d and still hold together was deled by the radius of effective cornration. By the 3rd millennium ivention of written records made sible to record laws and dispatch ctions to governors of distant proi. The introduction of the horse 0 Bc) facilitated further expannot only because chariots could eed foot soldiers, but because ited couriers covered longer diss in a shorter time. ps, propelled by oars or sails, orig1 in prehistoric times and played creasing part in trade and commuion. States essentially dependent •laritime power developed more y; the first genuine thalassocracy probably Crete (c2000 bc) Later i’hoenicians, and later still the ks, took to the mediterranean, ilished colonies, and built empires were held together by sea power. almost tideless mediterranean its numerous islands invited namterprise. this map the critical area to ob: is the tiny Greek peninsula, a ed finger pointing southward into.lediterranean. This rocky, mounlus, fragmented land, in which no lity is more than 60 miles from the was the home of the Greeks and led to shape their character. The that liberty loves tire mountains the sea has some historical foundahe ancient empires of the Middle India, and China were primarily 1 empires. Societies rooted in the societies where the masses toil at culture, the bureaucracy is authorian, and defense rests with an army, i to remain static and conservative, h. conditions perpetuate a spirit of :ility, obedience, and orthodoxy: y do not encourage independence, iosity, and skepticism. ^ rising population and the limited ources of their homeland drove the





Greece Socrates. philosopher, great teacher; advocated principle ‘know thyself and admit ignorance; taught by dialectical method, cross-examination; definition through inductive reasoning; established conceptual basis of knowledge; believed, unlike skeptical Sophists, virtue and truth attainable through reason; knowledge is virtue and could be both learned and taught; found guilty of corrupting Athenian youth, accepted death sentence rather than compromise principles. Plato. Philosopher; greatest of socrates’ pupils; constructed systematic body of thought in attempt to explain universe; profound influence on future concepts; Dialogues, conversation device with Socrates as participant, included Symposmm (esthetics) , Phaedo (immortality) , The Republic (justice and the ideal state), and Laws; taught independence and objective reality of ideas, superiority of reason over the senses; influenced by Parmenides, Socrates, and mathematics of Pythagoreans; outstanding prose style. Aristotle. Philosopher; one of world’s greatest drinkers; pupil of Plato, tutor of Alexander the Great; philosophical nomenclature began widt him; first to develop system of formal logic; combined speculation with empirical analysis for study of both physical world and metaphysics; Organon, six treatises on Logic, most influential work; aristotelian scientific method of classifications derived from diree of included treatises; concept of God as ‘primemover’; ethical emphasis. Zeno. Philosopher; founder of Stoic school; knorvledge is subjective (sense perception) ; men’s lives guided by fate. Epicurus. Philosopher; founded Epicurean School, Athens, 306; materialist philosophy teaching pleasure or peace of mind the rvay to happiness, Heraclitus. Original philosopher of Ephesus; proposed essential characteristic of the universe was change and its essence, fire; reason objective, not subjeaive and individual.





RELIGION Asia CHINA. Mencius (Meng-tse) Great leader; preached Confucian doctrines; Book of Mencius, became a classic; taught good life could best be promoted by good government; rulers should be men of intellect; recognized right of revolution when king failed to benefit people; denounced profitmotive and war; kept confucianism alive in China. Chuang-tse and Lieh-tse were outstanding exponents of Taoism; mysticism, search for spiritual and ethical truth through companionship with nature; confucianism taught principle of being ‘true to one’s nature’; etliical humanism stressed; d.eveloped from a system of ethics for proper living into a theolog); basic state philosophy; Taoism in temporary decline; Buddhism introduced. INDIA. Buddhism became organized religion during reign of Asoka, a convert; spread widely, missionaries sent to all parts of India, Ceylon, much of Asia. Buddhism split into two schools, Mahayana (great or big vessel) and Hinayana (small vessel); Mahayana, larger group, elaborated ritual and theology with symbols and mythology; asserted all can share in redemption through compassion. counter-reformation in Hinduism introduced native gods into Vedic pantheon; trinity, Brahma deified. Europe GREECE. hellenistic religion individual matter; city-state and its gods lost power; Eleusinian, Orphic mysteries, new cults gained many adherents, satisfying yearning for personal salvation. ROME. Greek and eastern influence increased in strength; Greek gods and myths adopted, added to state religion; Greek and Eastern mystery cults of Dionysus, Cybele, Attis, Isis and Mithra introduced largely by soldiers, traders, and slaves; cult of Caesar, oriental idea of deifying kings, instituted; Augustus attempted religious revival, rebuilt temples.





Global perspectives .N THIS MAP western Europe appears IS a civilized area for the first time. The western Europeans developed no authentic civilization of their own in an:ient times; they were barbarians when the Roman legions subdued them 2000 years ago. In the perspective of world history, European civilization ranks as 1 recent and derivative culture by comparison with the civilizations of the Middle East and farther Asia. The Greeks, for all their originality, borrowed more than they realized, and the

omans borrowed heavily from the jreeks. The Roman Empire developed into die largest, most stable, and best organzed empire of ancient times. It is the mly state that has ever brought all the lands surrounding the mediterranean ander one rule. By linking Gaul France) and Britannia (England) to the more highly civilized mediterralean world the Romans made them the leirs of classical civilization. Even at its greatest extent the Roman Empire did not include Germany, scandinavia, or Russia. This fact is worth keeping in mind. After the define of Rome and the 1000-year period if the Middle Ages, the areas in western Europe that had known Roman rule Recovered most rapidly. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, Italy, Spain, France, and Britain in turn led European developments while Germany and -ussia lagged. For China the first two centuries ad were a period of strength and expanion under the Han Dynasty. China :ontinued to prosper under the Chin 265420 ad) and Liu-Sung (420-79 ad) Dynasties. Northern India had two centuries of unity (4th and 5th ad) under the Gupta emperors. What contacts developed within and between the Roman, Chinese, and jupta empires The Romans knit their provinces by a system of excellent roads and suppressed piracy in the Midlie Sea. Merchants could ship their wares from Syria to Spain in safety and the surplus wheat of north Africa fed die populace of Italian cities. mediterranean wines and olive oil reached Gaul and Britain, and northern products (furs, leadier, amber) found a market in Rome. The cohesion of the Roman world depended as much on commercial and cultural ties as on military or legal coercion. In China die Yellow and Yangtze, rivers and dieir tributaries served as main-watenvays and numerous canals also aided transportation as well as irrigation., Roads transected the empire; Dhinese horses improved notably





Roman Empire The empire governed by Augustus (27 bc-14 ad) was the most successful and best consolidated empire tliat had yet appeared in the west and it grew even larger in the first two centuries AD. Its strengtli could be attributed to three main advantages, 1. Defense. The wars of conquest whereby Rome achieved supremacy demonstrated the superiority of the Roman legion as a military unit and of tlie Roman galley as a warship. Roman discipline was admirable; the fighting men were also skilled at fortifying a camp, building a road, or bridging a river. On tire south, west, and north the empire attained natural and defensible frontiers





MUSIC Rome Popular music of the Romans created and performed for festivals, contests, and colossal public spectacles was, of necessity, loud; only large clioruses and several groups of musicians could be heard in amphitheaters; huge instruments, including hydraulic and pneumatic organs, required several performers to operate; classical style, in poor imitation of Greeks, used by smaller ensembles. CHRISTIAN MUSIC. Ignatius, St., Bishop of Antioch; introduced antiphonal singing based on Hebrew psalm singing, Greek chorus, and Roman citharoedic chants. Basil, St., the Great. c330-379. Father of Greek Church; revised liturgy; created one of main types of Mass. Chrysostom, John, St. Greatest of Greek fathers; developed second main type of Mass; oriental influence strong; psalms sung antiphonally and responsorially, Ambrose, St. Bishop of Milan; interested in reforming ceremony and music of Church; attempted to eliminate secular and pagan elements; wrote excellent sermons, hymns; regarded as founder of hymnody and Ambrosian cliant; used four authentic modes comparable to Greek primary modes; no meter. Prudentius. Early Spanish Church poet; composed hymns considered more brilliant than those of Ambrose. General. monasteries, centers of learning, trained choirs; fulfilled need for singers as liturgy became more elaborate and congregational singing declined; School of Chant established, Rome, early 4th century; melodies handed down aurally from master to pupils in all schools; growing repertory increased difficulty. Asia CHINA. Music and poetry closely linked; Shen Yiieh, poet, led in development of music as separate art form; important part of dance program.





America During this period the New Empire of the Mayan people had its finest flowering in northern Yucatan. A league of three city states (chichdnitza, Mayapan, and Uxmal) maintained order and prosperity, and Mayan art and architecture reached new levels of achievement. By 1200, however, this Mayan civilization began to fall under the influence of the Toltecs of Mexico; Toltec garrisons occupied some of the cities and local rivalries and struggles brought a weakening and finally a decline of the Mayan Empire. By 1250 a new people, the Aztecs, had established themselves on the Mexican plateau. They assimilated the culture developed by earlier peoples there and borrowed some Mayan techniques. Their influence expanded steadily. Farther north the Pueblo culture reached its height in these centuries. Its most advanced centers were situated in the area between the headwaters of the Rio Grande and the lower Colorado rivers. In the Andean region of South America the Incas began to extend their influence over the peoples already established there, whose culture was almost as advanced as that of the Mayas. By 1250 the Inca conquests, spreading out from their capital at Cuzco and the shores of Lake Titicaca, embraced most of the area of present-day Peru. The Incas consolidated their conquests by constructing roads, encouraging agriculture, and resettling troublesome groups in new areas where they could be more easily watched and controlled.





Bayeux Tapestry. Completed in English embroidery workshop; eloquent pictorial document; one of rare secular subjects. Gothic Art. culmination of major artistic acliievements of medieval period; Gothic architecture saw merging of interior and exterior design, creating unity; distinct new sculptural style emerged in IStli century; stained glass windows achieved radiant effects by prismatic transformation and combination of light and color; introduction of new secular themes in illuminated manuscripts enhanced that art. Architecture. Important substitution of a pointed for a rounded arch; pointed arch allowed greater freedom of vertical motion; crowns of individual vaults could be raised to equal heights; pointing and narrowing of arclies allowed for changes in shapes; additional support needed where vault rested on wall solved by use of buttress; flying buttresses’ long, thin, stone supports bolstered exterior of building at various points; Gothic building broader, side chapels added; brilliant example. Cathedral of Notre Dame, Chartres; Abbey Church of St. Denis, near Paris, prototype of Gothic arcliitecture, became model for cathedrals, including Rlieims (rebuilt 1210), Amiens (1220-88), Notre Dame, Paris (1163-1235), and Rouen (begun 1200) Sculpture. iconographic carving in depth; 2,000 figures on exterior of Chartres; trumeau figures at Amiens, vigorous naturalism. Stained Glass. Developed art by second half of 12th century; allied to art of mosaics, replaced mural and ceiling painting; abstract two-dimensional design, 175 panels at Chartres; rose windows of Chartres, Rheims, Notre Dame, Paris, exceptional examples.





1 2041461 Byzantine and Venetian forces could not prevent Ottoman Turks from entering Balkan peninsula





The most notable political trend in Europe during the 13th and 14th centuries was the rise of monarchical territorial states. In England, France, Spain, and the scandinavian countries royal authority grew stronger and the dynastic monarchs began to consolidate their authority. In this difficult task the rulers had to cope with strong and resentful vassals who sometimes possessed resources and armies equal to the king’s. In their struggle to curb their arrogant barons and control the disruptive forces of feudalism, the monarchs sought the aid of the rising towns. The burghers, who found one tyrant preferable to many, and considered the king’s justice, the king’s coinage, and the king’s protection better and more uniform than feudal fragmentation, helped the monarchs to extend their authority. This tentative ‘alliance’ of monarchs and merchants helps to explain the rise of representative government. Within half a century (1250-1300) representatives from the towns were admitted to the royal assemblies in half a dozen states. In Spain the rulers of Castile, Aragon, and Catalonia, in England Edward I, in France Philip IV all summoned delegates of the Third Estate (the ‘commoners’) during this period. In the Holy Roman Empire some of the towns were invited to send representatives to the Diet as early as 1255. One reason for summoning the to%vnsmen was that the townsmen had money and the monarchs needed it. With gold they could hire mercenary companies to fight for them, could buy the new cannon tliat battered down stone castles, could break the entrenched power of the great barons. It is an oversimplification to say that gold and gunpowder destroyed feudalism; what they did was to furnish some of the weapons that helped to destroy it.





Yet, even before cannon were introduced into European warfare in the 14th century and smaller firearms in the 15 th, the mounted mail-clad knight had met his matcli though he was slow to admit it. The crossbow (known since ancient times) was strengthened and improved until by the 14th century its bolts could pierce the stoutest armor. The English longbow was even more deadly because its arrows could be discharged much more rapidly. Long lances, too, helped compact groups of footmen to protect themselves against charging knights. Inevitably the expanding monarchical states clashed with one another. A ‘Hundred Years’ War’ (1337-1453) between England and France proved that English bowmen could mow down the chivalry of France (battles of Cr^cy. 1346, Poitiers, 1356, Agincourt, 1415) but in the end the English kings failed to retain their French conquests.





In trade liicsvisc the Europeans hthind the Middle East t -m3u To pm the situation blni h«rope in HoQ..j colonial tna SM tae.Nfoslems. Most of the poo< produce were too bulky foi could com Lacking Koo< couid the treasures ol





Europe In the 15th century all the forces hat were transforming medieval Euopean society speeded up. The cenriiized (dynastic) territorial states ook firmer shape. The rising burgher lass of the towns increased its wealth nd influence. A ‘revival of learning’ (especially in Italy) broadened the ntellectual horizon of the European peoples. New techniques and instrunents, many of them borrowed from;he Chinese, influenced European nethods of travel, industry, and war. At tlie same time the three great institutions tliat had dominated medieval European society (the Church, the Holy Roman Empire, and feudalism) were weakened and lost ground as the new forces grew stronger. An intellectual ferment (the Italian renaissance) led miters and artists to study and imitate more zealously the great classical models of antiquity, and tlie spirit of secularism thus inspired tempered the ascetic othenvordly spirit of Christian piety. The new monarchical states resisted the universal claims of the popes and emperors. The townsmen, finding one t^Trant preferable to many, helped the monarchs to curb their rebellious and semi-independent barons. The methods and techniques of warfare were clianging. The Swiss gained a great reputation for military skill by proving that infantry could defeat mounted knights. The crossbow (known since ancient times) and tlie longbow were both improved until their bolts could pierce armor plate. The centralized territorial states, which were to prove Uiemselves decisive political units of tlie new age, crystallized more definitely.





Nicholas of Cusa (Nikolas Chrypffs or Krebs). Scholar, important work in mathematics; ideas anticipated Copernicus in De docta ignorantia (Learned Ignorance), arguing that universe, being infinite, couldhave no center, and that earth had diurnal rotation; made.map of known world, using centralprojection; one of first to emphasize importance of measurement in all in\ estigations; recorded ■ first biological experiment in modern times showing plant gained weight from air; De ^tnhcus experimentis suggested e.\perimental method. ^ Rehaim, Martin. Traveler, cosmograp ler, studied astronomy, navigation, mathematics; attempted to improve inglob™ ^.navigation; terrestrial





Global perspectives The land areas of the globe comprise less than 30 per cent of its surface. The two largest land masses, Eurasia (nearly 21 million square miles) and Africa (over 11 million square miles) are linked by a land bridge at the Isthmus of Suez. The third and fourth largest. North America (over 8 million square miles) and South America (nearly 7 million square miles) are likewise joined by a narrow land bridge, the Isthmus of Panama. These evident facts are stressed because of the important influence they have had on human communication. In distant times a third land link existed and joined Asia to North America at Bering Strait: this 56-mile strait is still less than 300 feet deep. Until recent centuries the oceans formed a major barrier to human and animal migration. The inland seas were navigated first, and primitive men learned to venture along the coasts of the continents. But the great ocean spaces apparently remained unexplored until some 5 centuries ago. This supposition implies that the civilizations of the Old World and the New arose independently. The paleolithic hunters who peopled the Americas from Asia must, in these circumstances, have paralleled some 3000 years later the steps by which the peoples of the Old World evolved an urban culture, compiled a calendar, and invented symbols for writing. It is impossible to prove that no contacts existed and no exchange of knowledge or techniques occurred. On the contrary, there is evidence that ocean voyages of considerable length did occur from paleolithic times. Australia, New Zealand, and many far-flung islands of the Pacific were discovered and occupied before the Europeans visited them. These feats of navigation by primitive peoples make it difficult to reject the possibility that other voyages besides the Vikings may have touched American shores before Columbus set sail. The Emropeans owed their conquest of the oceans to improved technology. By the 15th century, ships had been developed with stempost rudders and sails that permitted them to tack against the wind. They were of sufficient size and could be managed by it small enough crews that they could carry food and fresh water for long voyages. The compass and compass card kept them on course. Gunpowder and cannon protected them from attack. The Europeans invented none of





dangerous trade routes overland by tvhidr eastern and tvestern peoples had exdianged their products, the Oceanic Age substituted a cheaper and safer method by rvater. The ocean routes opened up by die Europeans remained under dieir control. They no longer depended on ‘die obstructive Turk’ for Asian goods and could secure them ivilhout paying diarges and tariffs to a middleman. But dieir J





prodigious outflanking movement had done more than circumvent the Turks; diey had become masters of the oceans, and die oceans cover seven-tenths of die eardi. furthermore they now obtained the gold they had lacked, the gold of Africa and America. As Cortes explained to montezuma’s envoys, the Spaniards suffered from a disease of die heart that only gold could cure.





As Holy Roman Emperor he was also concerned to rally German forces to resist the Turkish advance in southeastern Europe. But he was handicapped by the distrust of German princes who feared to increase his authority, by his wars with France, and by a religious scliism, tlie Protestant reformation, that split half Europe away from the Roman Catholic Church. For over a century criticism of the papacy had been growing stronger. Laxity and corruption among the clergy, indolence and immorality in the monasteries, and the transfer to Rome of revenues raised throughout Europe prepared tire way for a revolt. The power of the Church depended in essence on the doctrine that its priests alone could hear confession, grant absolution, and so assure the salvation of the soul. The authority of the pope to issue ‘indulgences’ which freed a sinner from the penalties of his sin stimulated a brisk trade in these ‘letters of pardon’ and brought money to the papal treasury. In 1517 a German theologian, Martin Luther, drafted ninety-five Theses’ attacking this system. Luther’s assertion tliat any Christian believer could be saved by faith, without the mediation of a priest, struck a critical blow at the whole hierarchy of the Roman Catholic Church and the doctrine of papal supremacy. The Revival of Learning, the critical and secular spirit diffused by the renaissance, the introduction of the printing press (after cl450), and the increase in literacy all favored the spread of Luther’s teaching. But there were other more material interests involved. The lands and revenues of the Church and the monastic orders were a tempting prize.





The, rise of centralized territorial states under secular monarchs prepared the way for the revolt against papal supremacy. Disputes between these ambitious monarchs, who claimed supremacy within their domains, and the Roman pontiffs who claimed supremacy over all christendom, grew sharper as the states grew stronger. According to medieval political theory kings were accountable to God, and as the pope was God’s earthly representative the pope could rebuke a wicked king and absolve his subjects from their allegiance to him. Inevitably, monarchs sought to escape from this papal overlordship and the Protestant revolt opened, a way of escape. furthermore, the rulers of the rising centralized states tvanted greater power and more taxes. In areas where protestantism triumphed the monasteries could be dissolved and much of the wealth of the Church confiscated by the state government. With these considerations in mind it is easy to see why, in the Protestant reformation, zeal to reform and purify Christian teachings mingled with more selfish and material motives. Half the rulers in the Germanies (despite tire opposition of Charles V) adopted Lutheranism. The monarclis of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden rejected the supremacy of the pope and set up national (Lutheran) churches. Henry VIII of England broke with the papacy and parliament recognized him as head of a (reformed) Anglican Church. In switzerland a religious reform movement started by Huldreich Zwingli (1484-1531) came under the direction of John Calvin (1509-64) and Cal-/ vinism also won numerous converts in the Germanies, the netherlands, and Scotland. It also made headway in France, preparing the way there for subsequent civil and religious wars. Spain, Italy, and the Austrian lands remained Catholic.





Asia The appearance of European ships oh the coasts of Asia was an event of profound significance for the history of that largest and most populous of the continents. In 1500 the commerce of the Arabian Sea, the Red Sea, and the Persian Gulf was largely controlled by Arab (Moslem) traders. But the return of Da Gama from India in H98, with a cargo worth sixty times the cost of the expedition, convinced the mercltants of Lisbon that control of the new sea routes was worth a mighty effort. The spices of the East Indies, formerly handled by Arabs, who sold them to the Turks, who sold them to tlie Venetians, could notv be conveyed directly from the Spice Islands to Lisbon. When news of Da Gama’s voyage reached Venice it caused a panic. The great days of the Venetian and Genoese republics were over. IVithin twenty years the Portuguese won a dominant position in the Arabian Sea. As ‘Viceroy of India,’ Affonso de albuquerque established headquarters at Goa on the tvest coast of India, captured Ormuz to control the mouth of the Persian Gulf, and Malacca as a center of operations in the Spice Islands. simultaneously other Portuguese navigators pushed on to China and Japan, and by 1550 tlxey were seeking trade privileges in both countries. Their merchants and missionaries were admitted to Japan (arrival of St. Francis Xavier, 1549) and the port of Macao on the south coast of China was opened to them in 1557. The Philippine Islands, discovered by Ferdinand magellan’s expedition (the first to circumnavigate tlie globe), xvas claimed by Spain, and the first permanent Spanish settlements there were founded in 1565.





Central Europe GERMANY. Fugger, Jacob the Rich. One of the early capitalists; holdings of family reached throughout most of Western Europe; forced to lend money to Charles V and Hapsburgs; brilliant manager of mining, real estate, and merchandising interests, as well as banker; in 1541, secured right to sell papal indulgences in Germany; established “fuggerei, ” settlement for poor, at Augsburg, 1519. At Esslingen (Bavaria) 1524,. regulation of coinage system in attempt to unify German monetary system. peasants’ War in Swabia and Franconia, 1524-25; rose against social, economic inequalities of late German feudalism, having gained inspiration from (and misinterpreting) Luther’s revolt against authority; incorporated demands in revolutionary Twelve Articles; repudiated by Luther; defeated and cruelly punished; end of free peasantry in Germany, anabaptists in Thuringia also attempted religious-social revolt; defeated. SWEDEN. Gustavus I, by Treaty of 1537, put an end to trade monopoly of Hanseatic League in Baltic region. Middle East The claim that conquest of Syria and Egypt by Turks, 1516-17, forced Europeans to find new trade routes unproven; actually, the Turkish sultans, particularly Suleiman, did what they could to reopen the near-eastern routes. General New products were introduced into Western Europe as a result of exploration and discoveries, including coffee, 1517; chocolate, 1520; cocoa beans, 1528; manufacture of silk introduced, 1521; cultivation of sugar cane began in Brazil, 1532.





W HEN Columbus returned from his first voyage (1493) Spain appealed to Pope Alexander VI to delimit Spanish and Portuguese claims. Alexander granted Spain exclusive rights to all non-christian lands beyond a line to run north and south 100 leagues west of the Azores. Such a line would have touched the eastern tip of South America, but the Spaniards did not yet know this. The following year (1494) the Portuguese persuaded the Spaniards to fix the line 270 leagues farther west (roughly at the 46th degree West Longitude by the Greenwich reckoning now commonly used) As Portugal was to have exclusive right to discoveries east of the line this gave it a claim to South America almost as far west as the mouth of the Amazon. It is possible that the Portuguese, who had explored the west coast of Africa for a century, already knew something of the lands to which the extended Line of demarcation entitled them. In 1500 Cabral’s expedition touched Brazil and claimed it before proceeding to India. Cabral s ‘accidental’ discovery of Brazil may have been fortuitous, but it could also have been deliberate. Since ancient times nations had guarded the secrets of their discoveries. The 1494 Line of demarcation, if extended around the globe, bisects Japan and Australia (134 degrees East Longitude) In 1521 magellan’s expedition touched the philippines, giving Spain a claim to these islands. The Spaniards kept and later colonized them, although they lay within the half of the globe assigned to Portuguese enterprise. It was highly improbable that other rising European nations would respect a dispensation that gave Spain and Portugal a title to most of the world. The aggressive activities of the Europeans in the Oceanic Age came to affect all the peoples of the globe and changed the course of their history. It is helpful, therefore, to pause and note the state of culture and the den





sity of population in the other continents when the new age opened. Africa and Asia (both in the portucolonize Africa; they established posts Here too the Portuguese sought tra guese sphere) differed in their level along its coastline and traded for gold, ing stations, but settled few co om • of civilization and their populations. ivory, and slaves. Their attempts to After defeating the R^slem ee North Africa, from Morocco to the penetrate the interior (they tried to the Indian Ocean, they Red Sea, was reasonably civilized and aid the abyssinians against the Mostrade. The only land areas prosperous, but it was under Moslem lems) ended in failure. aged to control effective y rule. The remainder of the continent, Africa had. an average of some 10 of the vulnerable islan s, on which the Portuguese could exploit people to the square mile. Asia had small Portuguese gamwns rulers.. without facing similar resistance, was about 15, but the Asian population awe the weak and ivi e still in a state of barbarism. The Porwas largely concentrated in the coastal The Spaniards in, n ) tuguese made no serious attempts to reeions, India. Indochina, and

Chi,na^^,^





PORTUGAL. Declined after 1600. The astonishing burst of vigor, which had lifted this nation of 2 million to prominence in the 15th and 16th centuries, suddenly spent itself. United to Spain in 1580, Portugal, with its trade and overseas empire, became a prey to the Dutch and English who were leagued against Philip II. In 1640 the Portuguese broke away from Spain and elected John of Braganza (John IV, 1640-56) as their king, but they could not arrest their decline. FRANCE. The restoration of order by Henry IV (1589-1610), after the confusion of the Religious Wars, brought a revival of French power. Henry was about to challenge the Hapsburg ascendancy when he was assassinated. His son, Louis XIII, (1610-43), was dominated at first by his mother Marie de Medici, later (1624-42) by his astute minister Richelieu, -who labored to make the king first in France and France first in Europe. By thwarting the conspiracies of the nobles, reducing the power of the Huguenots, and failing to summon the Estates General (after 1614) Richelieu strengthened the absolute authority of the Frencli crown. In foreign affairs Richelieu intervened (after 1635) in the Thirty Years’ War in order to weaken Hapsburg power. After his death Cardinal Mazarin continued his policies as minister of the young Louis XIV (16431715) Despite internal revolts (the Fronde, 1648-53) Mazarin pursued the war tvith Spain until 1659 (Peace of the P)Tenees) by which France made frontier gains in Flanders and the Pyrenees.





Axnerico After 1600 the Frencli, English, and Dutcli broke the spanish-portugucse monopoly in American colonization, a development facilitated by the decline of Spanish and Portuguese sea power. FRENCH COLONIES. The first permnneni French settlements in the St. Lawrence valley (Quebec, 1608; Montreal, 1642) established French claims to Canada. In die West Indies they captured Martinique and some lesser islands in 1635. ENGLISH COLONIES, With the founding of Jamestown in Virginia (1607) and Plymouth in massachusetts (1620) the English empire in America had its modest beginning. No gold or silver was found, and die colonists turned to agriculture and trade. Bermuda was settled by die English after 1612. DUTCH COLONIES. As the leading maritime power in the early 17th century the Dutch seized the northern coast of Brazil from the Portuguese, but the latter recovered it by 1654, Farther north the Dutch setded in Guiana and captured Curasao, Tobago, St. Eustatius, and other islands in the Spanish Main. In 1625 they founded Neiv Amsterdam (Neiv York) and claimed the lower valley of die Hudson River. SPANISH COLONIES. Despite declining resources the Spaniards kept and slowly expanded their mainland possessions in America. But diey could not supply many of the goods their colonists needed, and die latter resorted to illegal or ‘contraband’ trade with Frcndi, Dutch,.and English interlopers. PORTUGUESE COLONIES, With die aid of imported African slaves die Portuguese exploited Brazil and developed valuable plantations diere.





Asia Tokugawa shoguns, anxious to promote education, employed priests to make copies of Chinese and Japanese books; however, no one outside ranks of Buddhist priesthood could become public teacher.





Globol perspectives Spain, Portugal, Holland, England, and France built empires, overseas, tlie Russians crossed the almost empty regions of northern Asia. Between the 15th and the IStli centuries they proved themselves, in terms of territory conquered, the most ambitious empire-builders of all. Between 1462 and 1796 the czarist domains expanded 7 million square miles, a rate of growth that averaged over 20,000 square miles a year. By 1800 the Spanish empire in America included some 5 million square miles, but it was a more remarkable achievement because of the distance and the geographical obstacles overcome. Like the English and French in North America the Russians penetrated an area sparsely populated and without any high culture. Their advance was an occupation ratlier than a conquest. By 1647 they founded a post on the Sea of Okhotsk, but did not realize for nearly a century that it opened onto the Pacific. In 1741 Vitus Bering crossed to Alaska. Russian fur traders followed the coast of North America as far south as California where they set up a post at Fort Ross in 1812. Wherever tlie Russians encountered finn resistance their advance slowed or halted. In Europe they took over two centuries to reach the Baltic Sea and over three to reach the Niemen River. In the south they fought the Turks for three centuries before they arrived at the Dniester and the Caucasus. In tlie Far East tlieir efforts to encroacli on the boundaries of the Chinese Empire met with very limited success. The nations of Western Europe, preoccupied with their own concerns and conflicts, gave little thought to the Russian penetration into Asia and beyond. There were, however, several awe-inspiring facts about the Russian realm and its prospects that merited their serious attention. 1. /Irea. By tlie 18th century the Russian Empire included half of Europe and one-tliird of Asia: in all it comprised one-eighth of the land surface of tlie globe. The nortliern coastal regions that bordered the ice-bound PoLir Sea were treeless tundra. But four-fifths of Russia was covered witli forest or temperate grasslands. 2. Population. With large, areas suitable for culth-ation Russia could support a large population, but its resources had not been intelligehtly ex





and crops suited to cold climates had encouraged this shift and if it continued Russia stood to benefit. Inland methods of transportation and communication, little improved since Roman days, were soon to be revolutionized by the steamboat (well suited to the slow Russian rivers), by the railroad, and by the telegraph. The ignorance and illiteracy of the Russian masses could be modified by





ordinates of lesser rank whom he could trust. The revenues of France (doubled by his astute minister of finance, Colbert) Louis spent as he chose, on his pleasures, his palaces, his mistresses, his courtiers, Iiis armies, or to promote his diplomatic aims. As the years passed the exercise of power and the incessant flattery corrupted Louis’ judgment. In 1685 he revoked the Edict of Nantes that protected the Protestant minority among his subjects and 200,000 worthy and industrious citizens fled the country. He persecuted the Jansenists, a strict but somewhat unorthodox group of French Catholics, and he quarreled with Pope Innocent XI over the rights of the Gallican Church (the Catholic Church in France). Louis’ greatest defect was his love of war. In 1667-68 he attacked the Spanish netherlands (War of devolution) and won eleven towns in Flanders at the expense of his dynastic rivals, the Spanish Hapsburgs. In 1672 he launched his armies against the Dutch Republic. The Dutch fought back desperately; Austria, brandenburg, Spain, Denmark, and England built up a coalition to check France, and by 1678 Louis agreed to halt. But he kept the Free County of Burgundy, taken from the Austrian Hapsburgs. During the 1680’s French armies moved into Metz, Toul, Verdun, Strasbourg, and Luxemburg without declaring war. Austria, Holland, Spain, Sweden, and Bavaria formed a league to resist and in 1689 came a third conflict; the War of the League of Augsburg. England joined the League; Louis made no further gains, and %vas compelled to restore some earlier ones (Treaty of Ryswick, 1697) Four years later France was plunged into the fourth and most ruinous of Louis’ wars, the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-13), described in the following period.





possessed extensive empires overseas. Portugal still held Brazil and coastal strips in Africa: by allying themselves with Britain the Portuguese secured the maritime protection their own tveakened naval power could no longer provide. The Dutclx Republic likewise allied itself with England (after 1688) and preserved its empire in the East Indies, its settlement at Capetown, and its Caribbean possessions. Spain took a different course; its Bourbon kings (after 1700) followed tlie lead of their kinsmen in Paris and clashed with Britain five times in the 18tlx century. This exposed all Spanish possession to attack by superior British sea power. Spain lost Gibraltar and Minorca (1714) and Florida (1763) to Britain, but regained the last two in 1783. The main Spanish possessions on the American mainlandresisted attack. They were less vulnerable to naval pressure and tlieir population (about 12 million and one-fifth white in the later 18th century) exceeded that of Great Britain. For France, which likewise fought Britain five times in the I8tli century, losses proved heavier. The Frencli lost all their major colonial possessions overseas.





By the 18th century Europe had become the prosperous center of a world-wide seaborne commerce. Ocean travel grew swifter, safer, and pleasanter with improvements in navigation and ship design. A fair passage from Bristol to Boston or Baltimore took about five weeks; a voyage to India and the East Indies might take as many months. More accurate chronometers simplified the calculation of longitude and with each decade knowledge of prevailing winds and ocean currents increased. Extended voyages by resolute explorers (Tasman, Dampier, de Torres, bougainville, Cook, La P^rouse, and others) gradually filled In the blank spaces on the map. The virtual monopoly the Europeans maintained on intercontinental shipping gave tliem two critical advantages. Europe could not be attacked by the peoples of other continents and could trade with all of them. These advantages help to explain why, between 1500 and 1800, the population of Europe rose twice as fast as the world average, despite the fact that during these three centuries some 5 million Europeans emigrated as colonists. In an age of wooden ships sea power depended on forests. Land clearing, smelting, fuel consumption, houses, and ships had depleted the forests of Western Europe, making the timber of scandinavia and America essential. By 1776 one-third of the ships that flew the British ensign had been built in American shipyards. Most Europeans remained unaware of or indifferent to the debts Europe owed its dominions overseas. They thought of colonies as dependencies, to be governed, supplied and protected. Yet without colonial trade Europe would have advanced much more slowly. The most lucrative form of commerce the maritime nations of Europe developed





(1787) planned ‘a more perfect union.’ tlie constitution it drafted went into effect in 1788; and George Washington became die first president (1789-93, 1793-97). American political theorists and statesmen found answers to four complex problems never previously resolved with equal success. (1) They reconciled the independent claims of thirteen sovereign states and establislied a federal union that gave the Federal Government sufficient powers for its essential functions. (2) They constructed a government of balanced powers, with an executive, legislative, and judicial branch, each providing a dieck on the others so that none could exceed its prescribed functions and authority. (3) They devised a republican and democratic form of government capable of controlling a vast and growing empire: hitherto large realms had been held together by kings or emperors. (4) Having suffered from the defects of the British colonial system, they solved tlicir own ’colonial’ question in a novel and daring manner: they provided tliat the unsettled svestern lands should form territories, to be admitted to the Union as states as soon as tliey were organized, and that sucli states should have equal status with the original thirteen. In tlic young republic two political parties formed. The federalists (Alexander Hamilton, John Adams) favored the financial and commercial interests, the republicans (jefferson) the agrarian and popular elements.





Central Europe AUSTRIA. The long austro-french (hapsburg-bourbon) rivalty was resumed during the revolutionary and Napoleonic period. Napoleon pursued, with astonishing success, the traditional French policy of eliminating Hapsburg influence in Italy and tlie Germanics, In 1789 ‘the germanics’ comprised some 300 states of varying size and importance. Napoleon encouraged the middle-sized states to annex the small ones and by 1814 the towl had fallen to some 38. But he did not favor strengthening Austria; instead he reduced and weakened it. When he announced that he no longer recognized die Holy Roman Empire, die Emperor Francis II dropped that title (1806) but remained Francis I, Emperor of Austria. substituting French for Austrian influence Napoleon organized most of the German states in a confederation of the Rhine with himself as protector (1806). Austria, recently defeated at Austerlitz, could not protest; Prussia tried to do so and svas aushed at Jena. napoleon’s shadow now dominated central Europe. switzerland (the Helvetic Republic) svas a pasvn of France, Belgium (the former Au-strian netherlands) had been annexed outright. The Dutch ncdicrlands, transformed into the Batavian Republic, then into the Kingdom of Holland svilh Louis Bonaparte as king, sverc annexed to France in 1810. To strengthen his ‘continental System’ for the c.xclusion of British commerce Napoleon also annexed tlic Nortli German coastline to the Baltic Sea. The humiliation of Austria and Prussia and advance of French power into central Europe alarmed the Russians.





Western Europe ENGLAND. Debt and budget continued rise to pay for armies, aid allies, expand navy, dockyards, shore defenses; finances remained sound; profitable trade enabled Britain to meet war costs and almost monopolize ocean commerce; enclosure movement forced small farmers, who could not buy expensive equipment, from land into cities, creating cheap industrial labor; Corn Law, 1815, virtually halted grain imports, gave more protection to landlords, but added to workers’ bread price; ‘golden age’ of business lasted until after 1815 when world-wide depression overtook England and resulted in passage of Coercion Acts, including suspension of habeas corpus for first time in English history; child labor legislation improved; resumption of cash payments by Bank of England, 1821, deflated currency; trade unions recognized, 1825, permitting attempts at wage and hour legislation but prohibiting use of strike; Peel revised antiquated criminal code, 1823-25. FRANCE. Code Napoleon, 1804 and later, guaranteed legal equality, property rights; inheritance laws introduced during Revolution; Berlin decrees established ‘continental System,’ economic boycott of Britain, 1806; commercial law code introduced, 1807; following Bourbon restoration, 1814, industry suffered heavily from British competition; Law of Indemnity, 1825, compensated the nobles for loss of their lands during Revolution, at expense of holders of government bonds, largely upper bourgeoisie. SWITZERLAND. Suffered economic crisis; no longer protected by continental blockade, unable to compete with English textiles; cantons divided on question of common customs policy.





ENGLAND. Lancaster, Joseph. Founded free elementary school, 1801, using monitorial system; acknowledged indebtedness to Bell, who was supported by established Church; angered after controversy, became Quaker and emigrated to America; promoted schools in Baltimore, Maryland (1818), Venezuela, and Canada. Asia INDIA. Ram Mohun Roy and David Hare established Hindu College of Calcutta, 1816; former important in introducing language in Bengali that could be read by uninstructed masses: Jognarain Ghosal of Benares founded school for teaching English, Persian, Hindustani, and Bengali at Benares, 1823; Calcutta Scliool Book Society founded, 1817. Schlegel, Friedrich von. 1772-1829. German scholar; svrote On the Speech and Wisdom of India, 1808. JAPAN. Hirata Afusutane (assumed name). Scholar; specialist in history and literature; works contributed to strengthening Shintoism and national sentiment toward abolition of shogunate.





jRLmericas UNITED STATES. Alexis de tocqueville, who visited America in the 1830’s, thought it unlikely so extensive an empire could be held together. But hew forces were at work that improved transportation and communication. The Erie Canal was completed in 1825, the first American railroad in 1829, the first steam vessels crossed the • Atlantic in the same years, the first electric telegraph (Baltimore to Washf ington) opened in 1844. These triumphs of invention and engineering Jielped to unify the growing republic. Between 1825 and 1850 its area almost doubled again. Texas was acquired in 1845, the Oregon country (by an accord with Britain) in 1846, the Mexican Cession (after war with Mexico) in 1848. Within three fateful years the United States advanced to tlie Pacific. By 1850 the original thirteen states had risen to thirty-one and vast western territories still remained to be settled. CANADA. Like U. S., Canada expanded rapidly in tlte I9th century although its population (half-frendi, half-british) remained about one-tenth that of the States. Discontent and a minor, revolt (1837) stirred British attention (Durham Report) and led to an Act of Union (1840) which placed Upper and Lower Canada (Ontario, and Quebec) under one governor and provided for a bicameral legislature. LATIN AMERICA. The hope of Sitndn Bolivar (the ‘liberator’) that the Latin American republics would lonn a union was not realized. They divided into some sixteen jealous and militaristic states, ruled in many instances by dictators.





Middle East The Ottoman power continued to decline throughout the 19th century. The Sultan’s attempt to repress the rebellious Greeks led to intervention by the great powers (destruction of Turkish fleet at Navarino, 1827) and Greek independence (Trc.aty of Adrianople, 1829). Sultan Mahmud II (1808-37) attempted reforms, but was handicapped by the revolt of his vassal Mohammed A)i of Egypt (183239). Asia INDIA. The British established control over Berar, Oudh, Assam, and the Punjab, reducing all India to a dependent status under titeir direct or indirect rule. In tlie so-called independent states tlie Indian princes continued to reign but allied themselves with Britain and accepted a Britisli resident adviser. CHINA. In the Tao Kuang reign (1820-50) the British opium trade through Canton became an acute issue when the imperial government attempted to suppress it. War followed in 1841-42 (Isi Opium W^ar) and China, unable to resist Western weapons, ceded Hongkong to Britain, opened five ports to foreign trade, and paid an indemnity (5100,000,000). Other nations (France, the United States) soon won concessions and foreigners in China secured extraterritorial status (could not be tried in Chinese courts). CENTRAL ASIA. Russian advances in the region east of the Caspian Sea continued until by 1850 the soutliem frontier of Russia extended through the Aral Sea and Lake Balkash to the borders of Mongolia. The British, concerned for the safety of their Indian empire, sought to preserve Turkey, Persia, and afghanistan as buffer states.





GERMANIES. Seventeen members of the Germanic confederation united with Prussia in customs union called Zollverein (suggested by List), 1834, tvhich brought a measure of economic unification; German manufacturers profited by reduction of internal trade barriers and by common tariff which partly protected them from French and British competition; first prohibition of child labor, in Prussia, 1839; first workmen’s union in Germany, 1844; founding of hamburg-america Line, 1847; Prussia again obliged tradesmen to join guilds, 1849; schulzedelitzch founded first credit associations for working classes; Raiffeisen instituted co-operative loan banks in Germany; serfdom abolished in Austria, 1848, and Sunday rest declared, 1850. SWEDEN. Opening of Gota Canal connecting North Sea with Baltic, 1832. RUSSIA. Through wars with Persia (1826-28) and Turkey (1828-29), extended gains and commercial concessions; Nicholas I issued new Code of Laws, 1832, an attempt to alleviate conditions of serfs and limit powers of landlords; more serfs could not be bought than land could adequately support, 1827; owners could not break up families of serfs and sell them separately, 1833; however, serfs (more than half the population) remained largely at mercy of landlords; ruble stabilized, and new currency issued backed by gold, 1839; first Russian railroad (16 miles), St. Petersburg to Tsarkoe Selo, 1838; no free newspapers and no criticism of government tolerated.





Eostern Europe BOHEMIA. Porkinje, Johannes. outstanding Czech physiologist; great microscopist, improved microscope techniques; large ramified nerve cells of cerebellum called ‘purkinje’s cells’; research in embryology, ophihalmolog) ESTONIA. Baer, Karl von. Biologist; referred to as founder of modern embryology; rediscovered the ovum in mammals, 1827, developed germ layer theory; created embryology as branch of comparative anatomy. RUSSIA. lobauhevsky, Nikolai. Mathematician: founder, non-euclidcan geometry, 1826; concept diat more than one parallel to a given line could be drawn through a point. United States Louis Agassiz, zoologist and geologist, worked on glaciers, 1840, fossils, 1833-43, opposed Darwin; James Dana, geologist, theory of permanency of continents and ocean basins, 1847, still valid; John Audubon, ornithologist; William Beaumont, physician, physiology of digestion; Dr. Horace Wells, dentist, used nitrous oxide as anesthesia, 1846. TECHNOLOGY 1826. First all-steam crossing of Atlantic Ocean, by Curasao, Dutcli Steamer. 1826. Samuel Morey obtained patent for one of first internal combustion engines in the United States. 1829. First railroad opened in U. S. (Pennsylvania); first railroad in France, English locomotives. 1834. Cyrus McCormick patented reaper. 1836. Prussian needle-gun, breech loading principle, invented by Dreyse. 1836. Stevens introduced screw propeller. 1836. Samuel Colt invented revolver. 1840. First incandescent electric light invented by Sir William R. Grove. 1846. Elias Howe patented sewing





Global perspectives The 3rd quarter of the 19th century was distinguished by a remarkable advance in the speed and safety of transportation and rapidity of communication. The economic, social, and political consequences proved so dynamic and far-reaching that this ‘transportation revolution’ might be considered the most general and fundamental trend of the period. Between 1850 and 1875 the world’s merchant fleet doubled from c9 million to cl 8 million gross tons, but only one-seventh of this shipping was steam-driven in 1875. By 1900 the world total had risen to 30 million tons and three-quarters was steamdriven. In other words, the steamship tonnage increased almost 10-fold in the last 25 years of the 19th century. Steam superseded sail because of the greater speed, safety, regularity, and economy of the steamship. Rising traffic made it expedient to construct some major canals. The ‘Soo Canals’ between lakes Superior and Huron (1857 and 1895) carried more tonnage than any other artificial waterway. The Suez Canal (1869) almost halved the shipping route from Europe to Asia. The Kiel Canal (1895) shortened the distance from the North to the Baltic Sea. The Panama Canal (1914) linked the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. At Suez and Panama modern engineering provided substitutes for the long-sought Northeast and Northwest Passage. On land the railroad introduced a comparable revolution in the same period. World railroad mileage, c25,000 in 1850, and cl 75,000 in 1875, rose 325,000 in the next quarter-century, reaching half a million miles by 1900. Speed in communication was likewise revolutionized. The first telegraph lines dated from the 1840’s, the first undersea cables from the 1850’s and 1860’s, the first telephone lines from the 1870’s. Sailing ships had often been delayed for days or even weeks by calms or by adverse winds. Steamships made dependable schedules possible. The 5week Atlantic passage of the early 19th century fell to 5 days in the early 20th. Faster ships also, meant that each could make more trips in a given time. This helps to explain why, with the world’s ship tonnage increasing 5-fold in the 19th century, the value of international trade could increase 20-fold. On land the steam engine speeded





ments from the Argentine, Au»u ■ and New Zealand. refrigerated ■ and freighters kept the sh < fresh. Reduction in the cost of transp tion outweighed the reduction time. By 1900 a ton of freight coul> be moved 2500 miles for the price i cost to move it 50 miles half a cen earlier. Goods could now be changed between continents mcheaply than they had once been





diangcd between neighboring totvns. This held true, however, only for countries that developed the netv methods of transport. In tlie 1930’s, for instance, wheat could be moved from Chicago to Shanghai for about SI a bushel, but it cost SH to move it a few hundred miles farther to stan ing Chinese families. The transportation revolution shaped 20th century civilization: witliout it modern mass production and





Western Europe PRANCE. Cezanne, Paul. Great master; important innovator; famous for portraits, still life, landscapes; believed all nature could be divided into certain basic forms; cube, cone, cylinder (which led to Cubism); color used as means of describing masses and forms, separating space into planes, creating illusion of depth, achieving solidity and calm monumentality; slight distortion to evoke forceful expression; extraordinary sense of design; exceptionally wide influence. Monet, Claude. Leading impressionist landscape painter; completely eliminated black and brown from palette; forms almost dissolved in sunlight; famed for The Gare St. Lazar e in Paris, The Haystacks, Garden at Giverny, Rouen Cathedral. Degas, Hilaire Edgar. Linear Impressionist; master technician; study of effect of light and shade on human form; noted for pastels, studies of ballet dancers; emphasis on drawing influenced by Ingres and Japanese prints. Rodin, Auguste. Great sculptor; Expressive Realism; majesty of form, expressing understanding and love of subjects; fluidity of movement; psychological depth and atmosphere surrounding forms provided originality of conception; famed for The Burghers of Calais, 1894, portraits of Hugo and Balzac, The Thinker, The Kiss. Gauguin, Paul. outstanding colorist; with van Gogh, pioneer expressionist; worked in Tahiti; flat, colorful, decorative design, influenced by Manet and Japanese; known for paintings of natives, Breton girls, self-portraits; unusual woodcuts. Seurat, Georges. Creator of Pointillism; considered Neo-Impressionist; attempted to restore harmonious and deliberate design to painting by intellectual processes; scientific breaking up of color into dots (points); famed for Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte, 1884-86; important in foreshadowing preoccupation with geometry and formal structural elements in art.





trolled the resources of a unified area the gfaph on this page suggests, from Many factors influence population continental in extent. The Western the Ifith to the 20ih century the Eurogrowth and forecasting future trends is European nations could not hope to pean population grew faster than the hazardous. Yet one threat to Europe matcli this advantage unless they forworld population. In 1500 Europe could be read in;tlie census returns, got tlieir ancient rivalries and united probably held 12 to 15 per cent of the If the population trends that prevailed their resources and markets. world total for that period. By 1900 in the 1st half of the 20th century Yet even Otis expedient, which was ■ it held 20 per cent of a much greater maintained the same acceleration in





Tho astonishing progress in sdence and technology of recent decades added a new dimension to history: the deliberate oppUcaUon of scientific knowledge to the shaping of eventsnuclear fission, for example, could be used constructively for the benefit of all nations and all men, or for the destruction of mankind. New theories offered an explanation of the basic structure of matter and of the universe. The launching of earth satellites portended increasing progress in space travel. Advances in medicine and biology included immunization against deadly bacteria and wonder drugs for control of disease. Although promising a longer, healthier life for all men, these advances greatly increased the problems created by the unprecedented growth in the world s population.





General For international geophysical Year 1957-58, leading scientists -of me than 60 nations joined in a concen trated effort to solve the mysteries o the universe; research was done on rockets, satellites, meteorology, airglow. solar activity, cosmic rays, oceani ^ raphy, glaciology, geomagnetism, seimology; tabulated findings were made available to all nations; Shann> Wiener (United States) devised Theory of communication (information Theory), 1942; Wiener introduced ‘cybernetics.’ Europe DENMARK. Bohr, Niels. Physicist; reconciled quantum theory and new atomic theory; suggested uranium atom could be split; Nobel Prize; 1922; influential. GERMANY. Hahn, Olto. Chemist, physicist; discovered several radioactive substances; formation of artificial ra; dioactive elements by bombarding uranium and thorium widi neutrons; split uranium atom, 1938 (Nobel 1944); discovered chain reactions; important in work on atom bomb. Domagk, Gerhard. Chemist,, patliologist; discovered prontosil, forerunner of sulfa drugs for treatment of streptococcal infections; Nobel Prize, 1939. Butenandt, Adolf. Biochemist; vital work on sex hormones. ENGLAND. Fleming, Sir Alexander. Scottish bacteriologist; discoverer of penicillin and lysozyme; shared Nobel award, 1945. Chadwick, Sir James. Physicist; discovered neutron, 1932; Nobel, 1935. Baird, John. Scottish inventor; first demonstration of true television, 1926; transatlantic and color, 1928; noctovisor, 1926. SWEDEN. Theorell, Axel. Biochemist; myoglobin; enzymes; Nobel, 1955. HUNGARY. szent-gyorgyi, Albert von. Chemist; biological combustion, oxidation; vitamin C; muscle chemistry; Nobel, 1937. SWITZERUND. Mueller, Paul. Chemist; discovered insecticidal powers of. DDT (dichlorordiphenyl-trichloroethr » M





Asia INDIA. The main problem is one of raising tlie literacy rate of the general population; in 1941 it was estimated that about 12 per cent of the people could read: in a reorganization of the educational system, greater emphasis has been placed on primary education, svith costs shifted to private groups and local governments; at the university level, however, the central government has extended its control in order to maintain high standards: an attempt has been made to unify the language; a department of education has been established in the provinces as well as in the central government; teclinical training receiving greater emphasis. PAKISTAN. After partition, 1956, a conference tvas called to create a system of education whidi could cover the entire country and attempt to make literacy universal within 20 years; Urdu was to be the compulsory national langu.ige in tlie 6th year; othenvise, local languages could be spoken; religious education made compulsory for all Moslems in all schools. Middle East TURKEY. Law in 1928 replaced Turkish alphabet with Latin alphabet, and ■whole nation was obliged to learn it; all books, magazines were reset in new type; compulsory education instituted, 1931; metric system introduced. international or Universal Languages. Latin was used.as the international language of scholarship until the close of the Middle Ages. Frendi has been used as tlie language of diplomacy, and English has become popular as the language of trade and commerce. Attempts have been made to establish an anificial, auxiliary language for universal use; diaracterized by phonetic spelling, simplicity, and regularity of syntax and form, over 100 sudi languages have been dewed, including Volapiik, Esperanto, interlingua, Ido, nov-esperanto Occidental, Arulo, Ro, and, most successful in recent years, Basic English, developed in the 1930 s, using 850 basic English words.